SOROTI UNIVERSITY

Foundations Of Behavioral
Sciences
CONSCIOUSNESS
A N D R E W BA M U LU M B Y E
M S C , C L I N I C A L P S YC H O LO G Y ( M U K )
Key questions to answer
1,What is consciousness
2,What are the states of consciousness?
3,What is sleep?
4, What happens when we sleep, and how much sleep do we need.
5,What is the Importance of sleep
6 , What are the major sleep disorders, and how can they be treated
7,What is the meaning and function of dreams?
8, How much do we daydream?
 Introduction
What is Consciousness 1
Definition:
This is the awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings we
experience at a given moment.
It is the individual’s current awareness of external and internal stimuli
that is, of events in the environment and of body sensations,
memories, and thoughts.
It is our subjective understanding of both the environment around us
and our private internal world but unobservable to outsiders.
What is Consciousness 2
Consciousness involves
(1) Monitoring ourselves and our environment so that percepts,
memories, and thoughts are represented in awareness.
(2) Controlling ourselves and our environment so that we are able to
initiate and terminate behavioral and cognitive activities
(Kihlstrom,
2007).
 Introduction
What is Consciousness 3
In waking consciousness, we are awake and
aware of our thoughts, emotions, and perceptions.
All other states of consciousness are considered
altered states of consciousness.
Natural forms of altered states of consciousness
include, sleeping and dreaming (These occur
naturally)
 Introduction
What is Consciousness 4
“Consciousness” on the other hand can be as a
result of drug use and hypnosis, both of which are
methods used deliberately to alter one’s state of
consciousness.
The study of Consciousness dates many years in
the domain of psychology E.g William James
(1890) found that consciousness is central to the
field of psychology and later psychologists
suggested that it was out of bounds for the
discipline.
 Introduction
What is Consciousness 5
They argued that consciousness could be
understood only by relying “unscientifically” on
what experimental participants said they were
experiencing. In this view, it was philosophers—
not psychologists—who should speculate on such
knotty issues as whether consciousness is
separate from the physical body, how people know
they exist, and how the body and mind are related
to each other (Gennaro, 2004; Barresi, 2007;
James, 2015).
 Introduction
What is Consciousness 6
Contemporary psychologists reject the view that
the study of consciousness is unsuitable for the
field of psychology. Instead, they argue that
several approaches permit the scientific study of
consciousness. For example, behavioral
neuroscientists can measure brain-wave patterns
under conditions of consciousness ranging from
sleep to waking to hypnotic trances.
 Introduction
What is Consciousness 7
And new understanding of the chemistry of drugs
such as marijuana and alcohol has provided
insights into the way they produce their
pleasurable—as well as adverse—effects (Wells,
Phillips, & McCarthy, 2011; Malouff & Rooke, 2013;
Liechti, Dolder & Schmid, 2017). Therefore,the
way humans experience consciousness remains
an open question.
 Introduction
What is Consciousness 8
Some psychologists believe that the experience of
consciousness is produced by a quantitative
increase in neuronal activity that occurs
throughout the brain an alarm clock moves us
from sleep to waking consciousness by its loud
ringing, which stimulates neurons throughout the
brain as a whole (Greenfield, 2002; Koch &
Greenfield, 2007; Ward,2011).
 Introduction
What is Consciousness 9
In contrast, others believe that states of
consciousness are produced by particular sets of
neurons and neuronal pathways that are activated in
specific ways. In this view, an alarm clock wakes us
from sleep into consciousness because specific
neurons related to the auditory nerve are activated;
the auditory nerve then sends a message to other
neurons to release particular neurotransmitters that
produce awareness of the alarm
(Tononi & Koch, 2008; Saper, 2013; Schurger et.al
2015).
What are the states of consciousness?
Awareness operates on two levels and humans
fluctuate between the high and low thinking
states. Low awareness of subtle and even
subliminal influences can become conscious as
a result of cues or stimulus of significant
meaning.
High awareness refers to our consciousness of
what is going on around us. Mindfulness is a
state of heightened awareness, focus, and
evaluation of our thoughts.
What are the states of consciousness?
2
Attention is what William James (1890)
referred to as a concentration of
consciousness. It is a mental resource
that can be vigilant and sustained or
divided and selective (Biswas-Diener &
Teeny, 2019).
summary
A person’s perceptions, thoughts, and feelings at any given
moment constitute that person’s consciousness.
An altered state of consciousness is said to exist when
mental functioning seems changed or out of the ordinary to
the person experiencing the state.
Some altered states of consciousness, such as sleep and
dreams, are experienced by everyone; others result from
special circumstances, such as meditation, hypnosis, or
drug use
Summary
The functions of consciousness are (1) monitoring ourselves and our
environment so that we are aware of what is happening within our
bodies and in our surroundings and (2) controlling our actions so that
they are coordinated with events in the outside world.
Not all events that influence consciousness are at the center of our
awareness at a given moment.
Memories of personal events and accumulated knowledge, which are
accessible but are not currently part of a person’s consciousness, are
called preconscious memories. Events that affect behavior, even
though we are not aware of perceiving them, influence us
subconsciously.
Summary
According to psychoanalytic theory, some emotionally
painful memories and impulses are not available to
consciousness because they have been repressed – that is,
diverted to the unconscious.
Unconscious thoughts and impulses influence our behavior
even though they reach consciousness only in indirect
ways – through dreams, irrational behavior, and slips of the
tongue.
The notion of automaticity refers to the habituation of
responses that initially required conscious attention, such
as driving a car and end up occurring unconsciously.
 SLEEP AND DREAMS
Introduction
The Paradox of Sleep
Why Do We Sleep, and How Much Sleep Is
Necessary?
Do we Sleep to Forget?
Why Are We So Emotional When We Don’t Get
Enough Sleep?
What are some theories of sleep theory?
Sleep and dreams cd
The Function and Meaning of Dreaming
Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering Problems
Daydreams: Dreams Without Sleep
Does Sleeping Better make us perform better
Sleep
This is a condition of body and mind that typically
recurs for several hours every night, in which the
nervous system is relatively inactive, the eyes
closed, the postural muscles relaxed, and
consciousness practically suspended.
Sleep is a state where awareness to
environmental stimuli is reduced. (Mandal,A,)
The Stages of Sleep
The Stages of Sleep
The Stages of Sleep
Sleep is not one stage event. It is like a process
and involves series of activity
Measure of brain during sleep reveal that the
brain is quite active during sleep.
It produces electrical discharges with systematic,
wavelike patterns that change in height (or
amplitude) and speed (or frequency) in regular
sequences.
The Stages of Sleep cd
As sleep moves from stage 1 through stage 3,
brain waves become slower. During REM sleep,
however, the fast wave patterns are similar to
relaxed wakefulness.
Source: Adapted from Hobson, J. A. (1989). Sleep.
New York: W. H. Freeman.
The Stages of Sleep
When people first go to sleep, they move from a waking
state in which they are relaxed with their eyes closed into
stage 1 sleep, which is characterized by relatively rapid,
low-amplitude brain waves. This is actually a stage of
transition between wakefulness and sleep and lasts only
a few minutes.
The Stages of Sleep cd
During stage 1, images sometimes appear, as if we were
viewing still photos, although this is not true while dreaming, which
occurs later in the night.
As sleep becomes deeper, people enter stage 2 sleep
The Stages of Sleep cd
Stage 2 makes up about half of the total sleep of
those in their early 20s and is characterized by a
slower, more regular wave pattern. However, there
are also momentary interruptions of sharply
pointed, spiky waves that are called, because of
their configuration, sleep spindles. It becomes
increasingly difficult to awaken a person from
sleep as stage 2 progresses.
Then stage three sets in.
The Stages of Sleep cd
Stage 3
This is deepest stage in sleep
The brain waves become slower, with higher
peaks and lower valleys in the wave pattern.
People are least responsive to outside
stimulation.
Most likely to occur during the early part of the
night.
The Stages of Sleep cd
First half of the night is full of stage three of sleep
The second half is characterized by stages 1 and 2
—as well as a fourth stage, REM sleep, during
which dreams occur.
The Stages of Sleep cd
4th stage
This is REM stage.
There is back and forth movement of the eyes
Shallower state of sleep characterized with
increase in heart rate and becomes irregular,
blood pressure rises, and the breathing rate
increases.
The Stages of Sleep cd
REM sleep occupies a little more than 20% of
adults’ total sleeping time.
Major muscles of the body appear paralyzed.
Dreams occur in this stage and if vivid the dream
will be remembered.
Note Dreams may occur at other stage of sleep.
 The Stages of Sleep cd

This is good reason to believe that

REM sleep plays a critical role in
everyday human functioning.
People deprived of REM sleep—by
being awakened every time often begin
to display the physiological signs
ofthat stage called rebound effect
when allowed to rest undisturbed.
The Stages of Sleep cd

With this rebound effect, REM-deprived sleepers

spend significantly more time in REM sleep than
they normally would.
In addition, REM sleep may play a role in learning
and memory, allowing us to rethink
and restore information and emotional
experiences that
we’ve had during the day (Nishida et al., 2009;
Walker & vander Helm, 2009; Nielsen et al., 2015).
Why Do We Sleep, and How Much Sleep Is
Necessary?
Sleep is a requirement for normal human
functioning, although, surprisingly, the reason
why has long baffled scientists. One
explanation, based on an evolutionary
perspective, suggests that sleep permitted our
ancestors to conserve energy at night, a time
when food was relatively hard to to get.
Consequently, they were better able to forage
for food when the sun was up.
Why Do We Sleep, and How Much Sleep Is
Necessary?
Sleep restores and replenishes our brains and
bodies. For instance, the reduced activity of the
brain during non-REM sleep may give neurons in
the brain a chance to repair themselves.
Reduced activity may also weaken connections
among particular nerve cells to conserve
energy, which has the effect of aiding memory.
Why Do We Sleep, and How Much Sleep Is
Necessary?
The onset of REM sleep stops the release of
neurotransmitters called monoamines and so permits
receptor cells to get some necessary rest and to
increase their sensitivity during periods of wakefulness
(Steiger, 2007; Bub, Buckhalt)
It assists physical growth and brain development in
children.
Enhances release of hormones for many functions of
human body.
Without sleep we will die
Why do we sleep, cd
Role of reverse learning and sleep
See expt on mice pg,267 essentials of psychology by Feldman
Qtn, Based on your own experience, how does a good night of sleep
affect your memory?
Do you sleep to forget
How Much Sleep Is Necessary?
Although most people sleep between 7 and 8 hours
each night, the amount that individuals need varies
a great deal. Where would you place yourself on
this graph, and why do you think you need more or
less sleep than others
How Much Sleep Is Necessary?
Individuals vary widely, with some people needing
as little as 3 hours of sleep.
Research shows that for most people, the more
sleep they get, the greater their sense of well-
being (McCarthy & Brown, 2015).
Men and women sleep differently. Women typically
fall asleep more quickly, they sleep for longer
periods…
How Much Sleep Is Necessary?cd
and more deeply than men do, and they get up fewer times
in the night.
On the other hand, men have fewer concerns about the
amount of sleep they get than women do, even though they
get less sleep.
Sleep requirements vary over the course of a lifetime: As
they age, people generally need less and less sleep (Monk
et al., 2011; Petersen, 2011).
People who participated in sleep deprivation experiments,
in which they are kept awake for about 200hours awake
shown no lasting effect.
How Much Sleep Is Necessary?cd
However people deprived of sleep feel weary and
irritable, can’t concentrate, show a loss of
creativity,
They also show a decline in logical reasoning
But when allowed to sleep function normally
 WHY ARE YOU EMOTIONAL WHEN WE DON’T GET
ENOUGH SLEEP?
After a restless night, many people feel increased
stress and overreact to events in their lives the next
day. Recent research has now identified the neural
basis for these reactions. For example, in one study,
participants were kept awake all night and then asked
to perform an experiment involving exposure to
emotional and neutral images. Participants who were
sleep deprived reacted to the neutral images as if they
were emotional, and they had less connectivity
between the amygdala (a region of the brain that
processes emotion) and the anterior cingulate cortex
Effects of lack of sleep
It can make us feel edgy, slow our reaction time,
Lowers our performance on academic and
physical tasks.
In addition, we put ourselves and others at risk
when we carry out routine activities, such as
driving, when we’re very sleepy (Anderson &
Home, 2006;
Morad et al., 2009; Simon et al., 2017). (Also see
Neuroscience in Your Life.)
Dreams
meaning and function
They typically encompass everyday events such as
going to the supermarket, working in the office
etc.
Students dream about going to class; professors
dream about lecturing. Dental patients dream of
getting their teeth drilled; dentists dream of
drilling the wrong tooth.
Dreams
meaning and function
Percentage of Dreams Reporting at Least One Event
Thematic Event Males Females
Aggression 47% 44%
Friendliness 38 42
Sexuality 12 4
Misfortune 36 33
Success 15 8
Failure 15 10
FIGURE above, Although dreams tend to be subjective to the person having
them, common elements frequently occur in everyone’s dreams
Dreams
meaning and function
Why do you think so many common dreams are
unpleasant and so few are pleasant?
Do you think this tells us anything about the
function of dreams?
Dreams
meaning and function
Psychologist and scientists have tried to explain
dream and their significance using theories such as
below
Theory :Unconscious wish fulfillment theory(Freud)
Basic Explanation :dreams represent unconscious
wishes the dreamer wants to fulfill
Meaning :reveals unconscious wishes.
Dreams
meaning and function
Dreams-for- survival theory:
Basic Explanation: Embedded in Evolutionary
explanation in which information relevant to daily
survival is reconsidered and reprocessed during
dreaming
Meaning: Clues to everyday concerns about
survival.
Dreams
meaning and function
Activation Synthesis Theory:
Basic Explanation: Neuroscience explanation in
which dreams are the result of random activation
of various memories, which are tied together in a
logical story line
Meaning: Dream scenario that is constructed is
related to dreamer’s concerns
 PSYCHOANALYTIC EXPLANATIONS
OF DREAMS:

Do Dreams Represent Unconscious wish

Fulfillment?
The theory asserts that dreams are a guide to the
unconscious (Freud, 1900).
Dreams represent unconscious wishes that
dreamers desire to see fulfilled.
the manifest content of the dream is what we
remember and report.
PSYCHOANALYTIC EXPLANATIONS OF
DREAMS:cd
The manifest content, however, disguises the
latent content(Actual desires), which includes the
actual, underlying wishes that the dream
represents.
and since the actual desires are threatening ,they
are thus presented in a dream story.
 PSYCHOANALYTIC
EXPLANATIONS OF DREAMS:cd
.

To Freud, it was important to pierce the armor of a

dream’s manifest content to understand its true
meaning. To do this, Freud tried to get people to
discuss their dreams, associating symbols in the
dreams with events in the past. He also suggested
that certain common symbols with universal
meanings appear in dreams.
For example, to Freud, dreams in which a person is
flying symbolize a wish for sexual intercourse
PSYCHOANALYTIC EXPLANATIONS OF
DREAMS cd
Symbols And dream interpretation (Freud) Climbing up a stairway,
crossing a bridges and riding,an elevator, flying in an airplane, walking
down along hallway, entering a room, train traveling through a tunnel:
Refer to Sexual intercourse
PSYCHOANALYTIC EXPLANATIONS OF
DREAMS,cd
Apples, peaches, grapefruits: Breasts
Bullets, fire, snakes, sticks,
umbrellas, guns, : Male sex
organ

Ovens, boxes, tunnels,

closets, caves,
bottles, ships :Female sex
organ
PSYCHOANALYTIC EXPLANATIONS
OF DREAMS, cd

Many psychologists reject Freud’s view that dreams

typically represent unconscious wishes and that
particular objects and events in a dream are symbolic.
Rather, they believe that the direct, overt action of a
dream is the focal point of its meaning. For example, a
dream in which we are walking down a long hallway to
take an exam for which we haven’t studied does not
relate to unconscious, unacceptable wishes. Instead,
it is simply may mean that we
PSYCHOANALYTIC EXPLANATIONS OF
DREAMS cd
We are concerned about an impending test. Even
more complex dreams can often be interpreted in
terms of everyday concerns and stress
(Cartwright, Agargum, & Kirkby, 2006; Boag, 2017).
Dreams, cd
Other dreams reflect what is in the environment of the
dreamer.
In an experiment, Participants were sprayed with
water while they were dreaming. Volunteers reported
more dreams involving water. The control group that
was left to sleep undisturbed
did not dream like the other group (Dement
& Wolpert, 1958).
Dreaming the door bell ringing may be the alarm
bell in the morning telling us it is time to get up.
Explanation of dreams
However, PET brain scan research lends a degree
of support for the wish fulfillment view. For
instance, the limbic and Para limbic regions of the
brain, which are associated with emotion and
motivation, are particularly active during REM
sleep. At the same time, the association areas of
the prefrontal cortex, which control logical
analysis and attention, are inactive during REM
sleep.
Explanation of dreams cd
The high activation of emotional and motivational
centers of the brain during dreaming makes it more
plausible that dreams may reflect unconscious
wishes and instinctual needs, as Freud suggested
(Occhionero, 2004; Wehrle et al., 2007;

Perogamvros & Schwartz, 2015).

EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS OF
DREAMS: DREAMS-FOR-SURVIVAL THEORY
Dreams permits us to reconsider and reprocess
during sleep information that is critical for our
daily survival.
Dreaming is considered an inheritance from our
animal ancestors, whose small brains were unable
to sift sufficient information during waking hours
thus dreaming permitted the
processing of information 24 hours a
day.
Evolutionary Explanations Of dreams:
Survival Theory cd
Dreams represent concerns about our daily living.
They illustrate uncertainties, indecisions, ideas,
and desires in our lives.
They are consistent with our daily living.
They represent key concerns growing out of our
daily experiences
Evolutionary Explanations Of dreams:
Survival Theory Cd
Experiments on rats supports this theory,ie
according to the patterns of brain activity that
appear alike when they were moving in maze as
when they are sleeping (Stickgold et al.,
2001;Kuriyama, Stickgold, & Walker, 2004; Smith,
2006).
A similar phenomenon appears to work in humans.
In one experiment, participants learned a visual
memory task late in the day.
Evolutionary Explanations Of dreams:
Survival Theory,Cd
They were then sent to bed but awakened at
certain times during the night. When they were
awakened at times that did not interrupt dreaming,
their performance on the memory task typically
improved the next day. But when they were
awakened during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
—the stage of sleep when people dream—their
performance declined.
 Evolutionary Explanations Of
dreams: Survival Theory. cd

The implication is that dreaming, at least when it is uninterrupted, can

play a role in helping us remember material to which we have been
previously exposed to.(Marshall & Born, 2007; Nishida et al., 2009;
Blechner, 2013).
NEUROSCIENCE EXPLANATIONS OF
DREAMS
ACTIVATION-SYNTHESIS THEORY
Proposed by J. Allan Hobson
It focuses on the random electrical energy that
the brain produces during REM sleep, possibly
as a result of changes in the production of
particular neurotransmitters.
The electrical energy randomly stimulates
memories stored in the brain.
Evolutionary Explanations Of
dreams cd
While asleep, the brain takes these chaotic
memories and weaves them into a logical story
line, filling in the gaps to produce a rational
scenario (Hobson, 2005; Hangya et al., 2011)
The above activity proceeds together with the
brain pons as explained activation information
modulation theory
Evolutionary Explanations Of dreams:
Survival Theory cd
.According to AIM, dreams are initiated in the
brain’s pons, which sends random signals to the
cortex. Areas of the cortex that are involved in
particular waking behaviors are related to the
content often found relayed in dreams. For example,
areas of the brain related to vision are involved in
the visual aspects of the dream, whereas areas of
the brain related to movement are involved in
aspects of the dream related to motion
(Hobson, 2007).
Evolutionary Explanations Of dreams:
Survival Theory cd
Activation-synthesis and AIM theories do not
entirely reject the view that dreams reflect
unconscious wishes. They suggest that the
particular scenario a dreamer produces is not
random but instead is a clue to the dreamer’s
fears, emotions, and concerns. Hence, what starts
out as a random process culminates in something
meaningful.
Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering Problems
All of us have at one time had problems during
sleeping.
This is called insomnia
There are many causes of failure to sleep which
could be due to a particular situation, such as the
breakup of a relationship, concern about a test
score, or the loss of a Job etc and these seem
obvious. Some cases of insomnia, however, have
no obvious cause.
Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering Problems
Some people just fail to sleep while in bed and
others wake up frequently during night.
Insomnia is a problem that afflicts as many as one-
third of all people.
Women and older adults are more likely to suffer
from insomnia, and people who are unusually thin
or depressed (Henry et al., 2008; Karlson et al.,
2013; Ong, 2017)
Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering Problems
Other sleep problems include,
i, Sleep apnea
where the sufferer has difficulty in breathing
during sleep. The individual is frequently awaked
due to lack of oxygen during sleep
They suffer extreme fatigue the next day.
It is responsible for sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS),
Sleep Disturbances:
Slumbering Problems cd
ii, Narcolepsy :This is recurring, irresistible attacks of
drowsiness and may fall asleep at
any time – while writing a letter, driving a car, or carrying
for example a professor
who falls asleep while lecturing may be suffering from
narcolepsy .
Narcolepsy is the intrusion of REM episodes into day time
hours. During attacks, victims go quickly into a REM state,
so rapidly, in fact, that they may lose muscle
control and collapse before they can lie down.
Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering Problems cd
iii.Night terrors
This is sudden awakenings from non-REM sleep that
are accompanied by extreme fear, panic, and strong
physiological arousal.
It occur in third stage of sleep cycle
Night terrors may be so frightening that a
sleeper awakens with a shriek.
Sufferer may have much agitation but often goes back
to sleep.
Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering
Problems cd
They are far less frequent than nightmares,
They typically occur during slow-wave, during non-
REM sleep.
They occur most frequently in children between
the ages of 3 and 8(Lowe, Humphreys, & Williams,
2007).
Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering Problems cd
Iii,.Narcolepsy
is uncontrollable sleeping that occurs for short periods while a
person is awake
People with this condition go directly from wakefulness to REM
sleep and skip the other stages.
The causes of narcolepsy are not known, although there could be
a genetic component, because narcolepsy runs in
families (Ervik, Abdelnoor, & Heier, 2006; Nishino, 2007; Billiard,
2008; Zamarian et al., 2015).
Others include sleep talking,sleepwalking
Daydreams: Dreams Without Sleep
Are more under control of the dreamer
Content is often related to immediate events in
the environment of the dreamer
Dream is full gamut of activities or events that
are relevant to a person’s life.
Occur during waking consciousness
Awareness of the environment around us
declines.
Daydreams: Dreams Without Sleep cd
People vary considerably in the amount of
daydreaming they do. For example, around 2% to 4%
of the population spend at least half their free time
fantasizing. Although most people daydream much
less frequently, almost everyone fantasizes to some
degree. In a study in which experimenters sent texts
at random times found that the participants were
thinking about something other than what they were
doing about half the time (Singer, 2006; Pisarik,
Rowell, & Currie, 2013; Reddy, 2016).
Daydreams: Dreams Without Sleep
The brain is surprisingly active during
daydreaming. For example, several areas of the
brain that are associated with complex problem
solving become activated during daydreaming. In
fact, daydreaming may be the only time these
areas are activated simultaneously, suggesting
that daydreaming may lead to insights about
problems that we are grappling with probably at
that time (Fleck et al., 2008; Kounios et al., 2008;
Carciofo et al., 2017).
Daydreams: Dreams Without Sleep cd
Daydreaming may contain elements of inner speech, in
which people talk to themselves in their heads. Inner
speech may help us to plan, be creative, and regulate
our emotions (Ren, Wang, & Jarrold,2016; Alderson-
Day et al., 2017; Fernyhough,2017).
Some scientists have seen a link between
daydreaming and dreams during sleep and found the
content of daydreams and dreams showing many
parallels, but the brain areas and processes involved in
daydreaming and dreams during sleep are related
(Domhoff, 2011
Sleep better
1,Exercise during the day (at least 6 hours before
bedtime).
2,Avoid long naps—but consider taking short ones.
3Choose a regular bedtime and stick to it.
4,Avoid drinks with caffeine after lunch.
5,Drink a glass of warm milk at bedtime
6,Avoid sleeping pills
Evaluation
1.What are the different states of consciousness
2.What happens when we sleep, and what are the meaning
and function of dreams?
3.Outline the importance of sleep to the human race.
4.Describe the major effects of failure to sleep as a human
being
5.What are the major sleep disorders, and how can they be
treated
6.List the theories used to describe dream and briefly explain
the relevancy of dreaming to human kind
Hypnosis and Meditation

What is hypnosis, and are hypnotized people in a different

state of consciousness?
What are the effects of meditation?
Hypnosis: A Trance-Forming Experience?
What is hypnosis
People under hypnosis are in a trancelike state of
heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of
others.
In some respects, it appears that they are asleep
but their behavior is contrary to the notion
They are attentive to the hypnotist’s suggestions
and may carry out bizarre or silly suggestions.
Hypnosis
How is someone hypnotized
It is a process which follows series of 4 steps;
Step 1,A person is made confortable in a quiet
environment.
Step 2, The hypnotist explains what is going to
happen, such as telling the person that he or she
will experience a pleasant, relaxed moment etc.
Steps of hypnosis
Step 3, the hypnotist tells the person to
concentrate on a specific object or image, such as
the hypnotist’s moving finger or an image of a calm
lake etc
The hypnotist may have the person concentrate on
relaxing different parts of the body, such as the
arms, legs, and chest.
Steps of hypnosis
Step 4 the hypnotist then make suggestions that
the person interprets as being produced by
hypnosis, such as “Your arms are getting heavy”
etc and Because the person begins to experience
these sensations, he or she believes they are
caused by the hypnotist and becomes susceptible
to the suggestions of the hypnotist(At this level
the victim is fully relaxed)
Hypnosis cd
People do not lose all will of their own during this
activity. They will not
They do not perform antisocial behaviors neither self-
destructive acts.
They do not reveal hidden truth about themselves and
are capable of lying
There are wide variations in people’s susceptibility to
hypnosis. About 5% to 20% of the population cannot be
hypnotized at all, and some 15% are very easily
hypnotized.
Hypnosis,cd
People who are readily hypnotized are also easily absorbed while
reading books or listening to music, becoming unaware of what is
happening around them, and they often spend an unusual amount of
time daydreaming.
In sum, then, they show a high ability to concentrate and to become
completely absorbed in what they are doing (Rubichi et al., 2005;
Benham, Woody, & Wilson, 2006; Parris, 2017).
Hypnosis, cd
hypnotized people show certain kinds of changes
in electrical activity in the brain which somehow
support the notion that hypnosis shifts the state
of consciousness
(Fingelkurts, Fingelkurts, & Kallio, 2007;
Hinterberger, Schöner, & Halsband, 2011; Keppler,
2017).
Hypnosis cd
Thus hypnosis represents a state of divided
consciousness.
Hypnosis is a form dissociation
Hypnosis cd
In one stream of consciousness, hypnotized people
are following the commands of the hypnotist.
Yet on another level of consciousness, they are
acting as “hidden observers,” aware of what is
happening to them. For instance, hypnotic subjects
may appear to be following the hypnotist’s
suggestion about feeling no pain, yet in another
stream of consciousness, they may be actually
aware of the pain.
Hypnosis cd
Some psychologists reject the notion that
hypnosis is a state significantly different from
normal waking consciousness. They argue that
altered brain-wave patterns are not sufficient to
demonstrate a qualitative difference because no
other specific physiological changes occur when
people are in trances
Hypnosis, cd
There is no evidence to suggest that there is
anything special about the hypnotic trance
(Hongchun & Ming, 2006; Wagstaff, 2009; Wagstaff,
Wheatcroft, & Jones, 2011).
In summary, hypnosis is neither a totally different
state of consciousness nor totally similar to
normal waking consciousness but rather can be
put onto a continuum (Lynn et al., 2000; Kihlstrom,
2005b; Jamieson, 2007).
THE VALUE OF HYPNOSIS
Hypnosis has been used successfully to solve
practical human problems and psychologists
working in many different areas have found
hypnosis to be a reliable, effective tool used in
management of different psychological,social and
some medical problems such as; Controlling pain.
Reducing smoking,Treating psychological
disorders, Assisting in law enforcement.,
Improving athletic performance.
THE VALUE OF HYPNOSIS, cd
Controlling pain: Patients have had chronic pain
when subjected to hypnosis or taught to hypnotize
themselves shown relieve in pain or gained a
sense of control over their symptoms. Hypnosis has
proved to be particularly useful during childbirth
and dental procedures.
(Hammond, 2007; Accardi & Milling, 2009; Spiegel,
2015
 THE VALUE OF HYPNOSIS

Reducing smoking:
hypnosis has proven to help people stop smoking
and cigarettes being seen poetried as unpleasant
(Elkins et al., 2006; Fuller, 2006; Green, Lynn, &
Montgomery, 2008
THE VALUE OF HYPNOSIS
Assisting in law enforcement: Witnesses
and victims are
sometime better able to recall the details of a
crime when hypnotized. For example a
witness to the kidnapping of a group of
California schoolchildren
was placed under hypnosis and was able to
recall all but one digit of the license number on
the kidnapper’s vehicle. (Whitehouse et al.,
2005; Kazar, 2006; Knight & Meyer, 2007 )
THE VALUE OF HYPNOSIS
Treating psychological disorders. Hypnosis
sometimes is used
during treatment for psychological disorders such
as relaxation techniques, to reduce anxiety by
increasing expectations of success, or modify self-
defeating thoughts (Iglesias, 2005; Golden, 2006;
Etzrodt, 2013)
THE VALUE OF HYPNOSIS
Improving athletic performance:

Athletes sometimes turn to hypnosis to

improve their performance. For example, some
baseball players have used hypnotism to
increase their concentration when batting,
with considerable success (Barker & Jones,
2008; Tramontana, 2011; Carlstedt, 2017).
Meditation: Regulating Our Own State of
Consciousness
Meditation is a learned technique for refocusing
attention that brings about an altered state
ofconsciousness. Meditation typically consists of
the repetition of a mantra—a sound, word, or
syllable—over
and over. In some forms of meditation, the focus is
on a picture, flame, or specific part of the body.
Meditation cd
Regardless of the nature of the particular initial
stimulus, the key to the procedure is concentrating
on it so thoroughly that the meditator becomes
unaware of any outside stimulation and reaches a
different state of consciousness.
After meditation, people report feeling thoroughly
relaxed.
Meditation cd
They sometimes relate that they have gained to
new insights into themselves and to the problems
they are facing. The long-term practice of
meditation may even improve health because of
the biological changes it produces. For example,
during meditation, oxygen usage decreases, heart
rate and blood pressure decline, and brain-wave
patterns change (Lee, Kleinman, & Kleinman,
2007; Travis et al., 2009; Steinhubl et al., 2015).
Meditation cd
Anyone can meditate by following a few simple
procedures. The fundamentals include sitting in a
quiet room with the eyes closed, breathing deeply
and rhythmically, and repeating a word or sound—
such as the word one—over and over. Practiced
twice a day for 20 minutes, the technique is
effective in bringing about greater relaxation not
only during meditation but afterward.
Meditation cd
. Evidence even supports long-term positive
effects of some kinds of meditation, such as in
the reduction of heart disease (Mohan, Sharma,
& Bijlani, 2011;Shaner et al., 2017; Yadav et al.,
2017).
It is diverse across cultures but in all cases it
alters consciousness a reason for involvement
of psychologists (Walsh &Shapiro, 2006).
 Drug Use: The Highs and Lows of
Consciousness
There drugs that alter the state of Consciousness.
they vary in how dangerous they are and in
whether they are addictive or not.
Stimulants: Block the reuptake of dopamine,
norepinephrine, and serotonin in the synapses of
the CNS. Examples, Caffeine, Nicotine, Cocaine
and Amphetamines.
Drug Use
Depressants:change consciousness by increasing
the production of the neurotransmitter GABA and
decreasing the production of the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine, usually at the level of the thalamus
and the reticular formation.
Eg, Alcohol Barbiturates and benzodiazepine
, Toxic inhalant, etc
Drug Use
Opioids:
The chemical makeup of opioids is similar to
the endorphins, the neurotransmitters that serve
as the body’s “natural pain reducers.”
Examples Opium, Morphine and Heroin
Drug Use
Hallucinogens: The
chemical compositions of the
hallucinogens are similar to the neurotransmitters
serotonin and epinephrine, and they act primarily
by mimicking them.
Examples Marijuana and , mescaline, PCP, and
peyote
Key words
psychoactive drugs
addictive drugs
stimulants
depressants
narcotics
hallucinogens
Refferences
Atkinson & Hilgard’s(2009). Introduction to Psychology, 15th Edition
Feldman,R,S.(2017).Essentials of Understanding Psychology THIRTEENTH EDITION,Published by
McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121