DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

AND DAIRY SCIENCE

COURSE : AHDS 242 - ANIMAL BREEDING AND NUTRITION

Credit- (1+1)= 2

Prof . Dr. S. D. Gadekar

Theory Syllabus
Animal breeding
1. History and concept of animal breeding.
2. Cell and cell division,
3. spermato genesis and oogenesis.
4. Gene: Functions and role in animal genetics, gene actions, gene
and genotypic frequencies, gene expression and mutation.
5. Mendelian principles and Hardy Weinberg law.
6. Chromosomes and its abnormalities.
7. Laws of probabilities and animal breeding.
8. Variations in economic traits of farm animals.
9. Systems of breeding.
10. Methods of selection and basis for selection.
11. Quantitative and qualitative traits.
12. Composition of plant and animal body.
Animal Nutrition
1. Classification of feeds and fodders.
2. Important food ingredients and their functions in animal body.
3. Digestive system, digestion and absorption of different nutrients
in ruminants.
4. Feed supplements and feed additives.
5. Methods of measuring food values.
6. Feeding standard & their principles.
7. Concept in feed processing eg. Complete feed block, enrichment
of low quality roughages and use of unconventional feed stuff.
8. Recent trends in animal feed technology.
COMMON TERMS USED IN ANIMAL BREEDING

Heredity
It means transmission of traits characters from parents to offspring

Cell
The basic structure and functional unit of organism

Breed
A breed is a specific group of domestic animals having homogeneous appearance (phenotype), homogeneous
behaviour, and/or other characteristics that distinguish it from other organisms of the same species.

Species
A species is a group of organisms that share a genetic heritage, are able to interbreed, and to create offspring
that are also fertile.

Artificial Insemination
The injection of semen into the vagina or uterus of female by artificial means or the like rather than by sexual
intercourse.

Gene
It is basic unit of inheritance located on chromosome

Dominant gene
A gene which show its phenotypic effect in heterozygote condition is called genotypic gene

Recessive gene
A recessive gene is a gene that can be masked by a dominant gene.
Mitosis
It is the division of somatic cells and two daughter nuclei are formed whose chromosome number
is same as that of original parent.

Chromosome
These are nuclear bodies which contain the hereditary material of cell

Mutation
It is sudden heritable change in genetic make up of an individual

Genetics
It is branch of biological science which deals with the heredity and variance among related
individuals

Alleles
It is alternative form of gene that occurs at particular locus on homologous chromosomes

Genotype
It means genetic make up or genetic constitution of individual

Phenotype
It means external appearance of an individual

.
HISTORY OF ANIMAL BREEDING

1. Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519)

Revealed the fact that the male and female parents contributes equally to heredity of
offspring's.

2. Robert Hooke (1665)

Apply the term cell.

3. Robert Bakewel (1725-1795)

First to start breeding and to establish breeds. He is remembered for setting the pattern of
modern animal breeding and he is called as father of animal breeding.

4. Thomas Bates (1775-1849)

Studied method of coiling

5. Lazzano Spallanzani (1780)

Used artificial insemination successfully to inseminate a Spanish bitch.

6. Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Published book “Origin of species”
- Theory of evolution

7. Gregor John Mendel (1822-1884)

Australian monk has been called as father of Genetics, because he was first to uncover and record
the of Inheritance, Segregation and Independent assortment of genes.
8. A. Schneider (1873)
The first account of mitosis.

9. O. Hertwing (1875)
Discovered the fertilization in both animal and plants
-Union of two nuclei contributed by male and female parent

10. August. Weisman (1892)

German zoologist presented “theory of the continuity of germplasm.

11. William Batson (1861-1926)

Coined the term “Genetics”
Theory of inheritance of quantitative character in farm animals

12. Hugo De Varies (1902)

A Dutchman, proposed a theory known as “Mutation”.

13. Wilhem Johannsen (1909)

Use term Gene, Genotype and Phenotype

14. Hardy Weinberg

Foundation of the law “Population Genetics”

15. H. J. Muller (1927)

Reported the artificial induction of mutation in animal by X-rays.
 .
16. H.J. Muller (1927)
Reported the artificial induction of mutation in animals by X-rays.

17. J.L. Lush (1930)

Pioneer in application of population genetics in animal breeding. He applied Mendel's work
directly to animal breeding.

18. Strassburger
Who first discovered “chromosomes”

19. Waldeyer
Coined the term Chromosomes.

20. Dr. Sampat Kumar (1939)

First attempted the artificial insemination at Palace Dairy Farm, Mysore. (Father of AI of India)

21. Ian Wilmut (1997)

He cloned Sheep “Dolly” from somatic cell division of adult ewes.

22. Wtson and Crick (1953)

Discovery of double helical structure of DNA
CONCEPT OF ANIMAL BREEDING

The domestic livestock is reared all over the world.

In India the most common domestic species of livestock reared by farmers are Cattle,
Buffaloes, Sheep and Goat, Camel and Poultry.

To improve the quality of animal for increasing the productivity, the systematic breeding
is necessary from generation to generation with definite goals in mind.

Even the best feeding and management cannot produce performance beyond the genetic
limit of an inferior animal.

It is therefore important to improve the genetic merit of livestock population at all levels of
management.

It is required to breed the animals which have better genetic ability to utilize the
additional feed and better management.

The productivity capacity and physical appearance and animal population can be
changed greatly by selective breeding. The general concept of livestock breeding can be
listed as below.
1. Breeding the livestock for improving the production:
Improving genetic ability to produce more milk, meat, mutton, wool, eggs etc.

2. Breeding the livestock for improving the Quality of product:

Improving quality of milk in respect of fat % ,Protein, Total solids etc. also similar
thinking can be have for meat, mutton ,wool, eggs etc.

3. Breeding the livestock for improving the environmental adoption:

i.e. Introduction of heat tolerance in exotic livestock which are original from cold
climate.

4. Breeding the livestock for improving the disease resistance capacity:

These changes in the form of production, quality of product, environmental adoption
and disease resistance of animal have been achieved not by creating new genes, but
by locating the existing genes, increasing their frequency and recombining genes in
progeny so that many favorable genes are present in the same animal.
STRUCTURE OF ANIMAL CELL

Every, organism start its life from a single cell which gives rise two cells by division and
each cell again divided into two, thus process is repeated. In this way a group of cells,
form one tissue and group of tissues form one Organ and group of organs form one
system. In this way number of systems comes together to form a animal body.

Definition of cell:
"Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organism.”

The size of cell ranges from 10 to 100 µ.

The cells which are multiplying are ranging from 20-30µ.
Cell Membrane
A thin semi permeable membrane layer of protein and fats surrounding the cell. Its
primary role is to protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it controls the entry and
exit of nutrients and other microscopic entities into the cell.

Nuclear Membrane
It is a double-membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. It is also referred to as
the nuclear envelope.

Nucleus
It is an organelle that contains several other sub-organelles such as nucleolus,
nucleosomes and chromatins. It also contains DNA and other genetic materials.

Centrosome
It is a small organelle found near to the nucleus which has a thick centre with radiating
tubules. The centrosomes are where microtubules are produced.

Lysosome (Cell Vesicles)

They are round organelles surrounded by a membrane and comprising digestive
enzymes which help in digestion, excretion and in the cell renewal process.

Cytoplasm
A jelly-like material which contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within the cell
membrane. The substance found within the cell nucleus, contained by the nuclear
membrane is called the nucleoplasm.
Golgi Apparatus
A flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle which is located near the nucleus and involved in
manufacturing, storing, packing and transporting the particles throughout the cell.

Mitochondrion
They are spherical or rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. They are the
powerhouse of a cell as they play an important role in releasing energy.

Ribosome
They are small organelles made up of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules, and they are the sites
of protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

This cellular organelle is composed of a thin, winding network of membranous sacs
originating from the nucleus.
ER is of two types: Rough ER and Smooth ER. Usually ribosome's are attached to surface of rough ER. Ribosome's are mainly
composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA). This RNA functions in the proteins synthesis in the cell and
Ribosome free region of ER is known as smooth ER (rich in glycogen and contain more lipids).

Vacuole
A membrane-bound organelle present inside a cell involved in maintaining shape and
storing water, food, wastes, etc.

Nucleopore
They are tiny holes present in the nuclear membrane which are involved in the movement of
nucleic acids and proteins within the cell.
 CELL DIVISION
I) Mitosis
Mitosis is the cell division associated with the division of somatic (body cells and results in the production of two
daughter cell from a parent cell.

Importance
i. Growth
ii. Regeneration of tissues
iii. Healing of wounds

1. Interphase/ Resting phase

• In this phase cell dose not shows any mitotic events.
• But prepare itself for the process by synthesizing new protein and nucleic acid.
Stages of interphase

G1 phase: (Gap 1) The period prior to synthesis of DNA.

The cell increases the mass in preparation for cell division.

S phase: (Synthesis) Period during which DNA is synthesized.

G2 phase: (Gap 2 Post DNA synthesis phase.

This is the last phase of Interphase.
Protein and RNA synthesis occur during this stage.
Chromosomes are not visible and individually distinguishable.
Chromosomes appears thin and coiled threads forming a faint network.
2 Prophase:
• During this stage, the chromatin network begins to coil and appears as a
long thread like structure called the chromosomes.

• Each chromosome consists of two chromatids that lie side by side and
joined at the center called centromere.

• The Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear at the end prophase. In

animal cells, the Centrioles move to the opposite poles and the centrosome
form the aster rays.
3 Metaphase:
•Disappearance of nuclear membrane marks the beginning of metaphase

•Chromatid become shorter and thicker due to dehydration and condensation

Chromatid are arranged on equatorial plate or in the center of cell.

•Spindle fibers are formed and in surrounding cytoplasm

•Spindle fibers are attached to the centromere.

•Chromosomes are clearly visible; hence, chromosome morphology and

chromosome number confirmation is done at Metaphase.
4.Anaphase:
• It is shortest stage
•The centromere of each chromosome divided into each chromatid.
•Spindle fibers are get attached to the centromere.
•At the end of anaphase the chromatids reach apposite poles of spindle.
•Active repulsion between sister chromatids occurs and each one dragging its
chromatids along with them.

5.Telophase:

•Chromatid become uncoiled, thin and invisible.

•The nucleus and nuclear membrane reappears and thus, nuclei are formed at
two poles of cell.
•The two daughter nuclei quantitatively and qualitatively similar of their parent
•The division of cytoplasm gets completed and spindle disappears.
•The chromosome breakup into chromatin network and two resting cells take
place by single one.

6.Cytokinesis:

•Process of division of cytoplasm.

•A constriction appears in the middle periphery of the cytoplasm.
•This gradually divides cytoplasm into two daughter cells
•Thus the cell is pinched off into two daughter cells.
.
Significance of Mitosis:
1. It results in the formation of two daughter cells having similar
genetic constitution as that of mother cell.

2. Linear heredity established.

3. DNA and RNA ratio is maintained.

4. Essential for normal growth and development of living

organisms.

5. Helps in asexual propagation.

6. Useful for maintaining the purity of types as mitosis result

into identical cells in quality and quantity.

7. Maintains heredity from cell to cell or from organisms to

organisms. Chromosome number is the same in daughter cells
as compared to that of mother cell, therefore, mitosis is also
known as homotypic or equational division
CELL DIVISION: MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS:
Definition of Meiosis:
"It is process in sexual reproduction by which the chromosome number of
diploid (2n) germ cells is reduced to half (n) forming mature reproductive cells
or gametes".
OR
"It is a special type of cell division which reduces the number of chromosome
to half i.e from diploid (2n) to haploid (n) is produced".

It is found in sexual organs i.e. anthers and ovaries (plants) and testes and
ovaries (animals), hence it is called maturation division.Meiotic division consists
of two successive divisions of cell, resulting into production of four haploid cells.
First division is accompanied with reduction in chromosome number without
any division through separation of maternal and paternal chromosome.
Therefore, first division is called as reductional division. Second division,
involves separation of chromatids of each chromosome through centromere.
The second division is called equational division. In the process of meiosis,
chromosomes divide once and the nucleus and cytoplasm divide twice. Four
haploid cells are formed from single diploid cell.
Meiosis-I or I nuclear division:
1. Prophase - 1: This is a longest phase and amount of DNA is doubled. This
phase is sub-divided into

a) Leptotene/leptonema: Chromosomes appear extremely thin, long and

slender threads, which are loosely interwoven. They are not divided
longitudinally into two chromatids. A series of bead like structures
(Chromomeric) are seen along the length of chromosomes, which are constant
in number, size and position.
Nucleus is having two sets (2n) of chromosomes i.e. one from female and
other from male parent. Each chromosome in one set has a similar partner
from other parent thus nucleus has pairs of similar chromosomes.

b) Zygotene/Zygonema:
The process of pairing of homologous chromosomes is called Synapsis.
Chromosome gets aligned side by side and pair with one another gene by gene
over entire length. Pairing starts from the end and continues towards
centromere, (Proterminal) or from the centromere towards the end (Procentric).
As chromosomes pairs, they begin to shorten and thicken. Nuclear
membrane and Nucleolus present.
c)Pachytene:
Chromosomes become twisted spirally around each other and can’t be
distinguished separately i.e. bivalent formation. Chromosomes become shorter
and thicker and are coiled. Each chromosome splits up longitudinally into two
chromatids except centromere. Thus each bivalent consist of four chromatids
with common centromeres, hence this stage is called as four strand stage or
Tetrad.
Chromosomes are twisted around each other with relational coiling forming
chaismata. Process of interchange of chromatin material between non-sister
chromatids of homologous chromosome is known as crossing over. Crossing
over involves reshuffling, redistribution and mutual exchange of hereditary
material between non-homologous chromosomes.
d)Diplotene/Diplonema:
Further, chromosomes become shorter and thicker and start separating from
one another. However, they remain together at certain points/chaisma.
Separation starts at centromeres and travels towards ends called
Terminalization. Chromosomes may show X or O or many shapes.
 e) Diakinesis:
Chromosomes continue to contract and coil due to which chaismata tends to
lose their original position and move towards ends of the chromosomes called
Terminalization.
Nucleolus and nuclear membrane start disappearing. Bivalents are evenly
distributed throughout the nucleus and appear rounded darkly stained bodies.
2.Metaphase-I:
Complete disappearance of nuclear membrane and nucleolus.
Development of spindle fibers. Bivalents orient themselves at random on
equatorial plate (such movement is called congression) in such a way that all
chaismata are in one plane and one chromosome of bivalent lie on either side
of equator.
3.Anaphase-I:
Homologous chromosomes move towards opposite poles.
Sister chromatids do not separate but go to same pole; hence it is called
Reductional or Disjunctional division.This results in the reduction in
chromosome number from diploid (2n) to haploid (n).

4.Telophase-I:
Two groups are formed at each pole resulting into two daughter cells
cach with 'n' chromosomes.Chromosomes get uncoiled.Nuclear membrane
and nucleolus reappear Spindle fibres disorganized .
- Meiosis-I may be followed by cytokinesis giving rise to dyad.
- Both cells may pass through short interphase

Meiosis-II or II Nuclear division : It is essentially mitotic division (meiotic

mitosis)
1.Prophase-II
Chromosomes reappear in each nucleus of dyad. Two chromatids of each
chromosome are still associated at their centromere. Nuclear membrane and
nucleolus disappear.
2.Metaphase-II
Spindle fibres are developed at right angle to the first division and are
attached to the centromere. Chromosomes with their chromatids lie at
equatorial plate.
3.Anaphase-II
Centromere of each chromosome in both cells divides forming two
daughter chromosomes. Daughter chromosomes start moving towards
opposite poles.

4.Telophase-II
Cytokinesis results in the formation of 4 daughter cells.
Four daughter nuclei are formed from original micro/mega
sporocyte.
New chromosomes uncoil and get original shape. Each cell contains haploid (n)
chromosomes and they may have different types of chromosomes depending
on the crossing over in Prophase-I.

Significance of Meiosis:
1. It maintains definite and constant chromosome number in all organisms.
2. It provides an opportunity for exchange of genes (genetical variation) due to
crossing over, which is useful in crop improvement.
3. It results in formation of 4 dissimilar daughter cells, each having haploid (n)
chromosome number.
4. It provides physical basis for segregation and independent assortment.
Similarities :
1. Involves nuclear division. 2. Involves spindle apparatus.
3. Genetically controlled 4. Has various successive phases.
5. Involves Cytokinensis at the end.
Gametogenesis: “The process of production of gamates is called
Gametogenesis.”
Spermatogenesis: “The process of production of sperms in testes (male
gonads) of males.”
Oogenesis: “The process of production of eggs or ova in the ovary of Female.”
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
Lecture No. 6. GENE EXPRESSION AND MUTATION

Each cell of a living organism contains thousands of genes. But all genes do not function at a time.

Genes function according to requirements of the cell.

Genes control the phenotypic expression of various characters through the production of specific
enzymes.

Enzymes are special proteins which catalyze chemical reactions. The production or synthesis of a
particular enzyme is not constant.

It varies as per the requirement of the cell. In other words, the synthesis of a particular enzyme is
sometimes high and sometimes low depending upon the requirement of the cell.

Thus, here exists an on-off system which regulates protein synthesis in all living cells.

The precise study of this on-off mechanism is called regulation of gene action or regulation of gene
expression or regulation of protein synthesis.

In genetics, gene expression is the most fundamental level at which the genotype gives rise to the
phenotype.

The genetic code stored in DNA is "interpreted" by gene expression, and the properties of the
expression give rise to the organism's phenotype.
"Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in
the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins,
but in non-protein coding genes such as ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA
(tRNA) or small nuclear RNA (snRNA) genes, the product is a functional RNA.

Protein synthesis involves two main processes, viz.,

1. Transcription and
2.Translation.

1. Transcription:
The process of synthesis of mRNA from a DNA template is known as
transcription. The mRNA is synthesized only from one strand of DNA in the
presence of RNA polymerase enzyme. The RNA polymerase which catalyses
the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template is called transcriptase. This process
can be represented as follows:
i) First RNA is synthesized from DNA in the nucleus and later on migrates to cytoplasm through
nuclear pores.
ii) In the cytoplasm RNA is used for synthesis of protein. Thus, RNA passes on information from
nucleus to cytoplasm.
iii) This RNA is called mRNA, because the genetic information is transferred from nucleus to the
cytoplasm by the RNA which is synthesized from DNA template.
iv) The mRNA is comparable to DNA in base sequence. It differs from DNA in three main
aspects as given below:

1. It contains pyrimidine base Uracil in place of Thymine.

2. It is single stranded molecule.
3. It contains ribose sugar in place of deoxyribose.
2. Translation:

The process of protein synthesis from information in mRNA is known as translation. The flow
of information is one way from DNA to RNA to protein. In other words, DNA makes RNA,
which in turn synthesizes protein. This sequence of information transfer between DNA and
protein is called central dogma,
In short Several steps in the gene expression process may be modulated, including :

1.Transcription.
2. RNA splietng.
3. Translation and
4. Post t-translational modification of a protein
MUTATION
"A sudden and heritable change in the character of an organism which is not due to
segregation or recombination, is called mutation“ Or
The phenomenon of sudden discrete and heritable change in the genotype of organism
is called mutation.

The change if it is in germinal cell is transferable from one generation to other

generation The effect is mostly unfavorable for to the individual concerned but
sometimes it may be favorable also.
Types of Mutation:
Major classes:
1.Chromosomal mutations: Change in structure and number of chromosomes.
2. Gene mutations: Change in single gene.

1. Chromosomal mutation:
In an organism the chromosome complement divides or reproduces itself accurately but time to time it may
be alter by duplication or inversion in some chromosomes or change in the number of chromosomes. Such
as individual with change in chromosome structure or number is called a mutant. This type of mutation
affects large number of characters change in fertility is an indicator of chromosomal mutation.

2. Gene mutation:
Gene arises from gene and heredity due to accurate gene replication. The process of gene reproduction or
replication is exact but occasionally it goes wrong. A copy of gene differs from its original and the modified
gene goes on reproducing its changed structure. This is called as gene mutation or point mutation. in this
case usually one character in affected at a time.
According to the origin mutations are of two types:

1. Spontaneous mutations:
When living organisms are subjected to the treatment of naturally
occurring agents like heat, cold, electric current, atomic rays, injuries, disease and insect attack,
temperature and chemicals, etc. mutations occur. They occur constantly and continuously in nature.
Rate is very low i.e. 1 in one lakh. They are basis of crop improvement by conventional breeding
methods.

2.Induced mutations:
When mutations artificially induced by man as and when required. its rate
depends on need of man. They are produced by subjecting organisms to mutagens such as
Gamma rays, X-rays, and various chemicals. The frequency is higher than spontaneous mutations.
They are the basis of mutation breeding when further improvement in crop is not possible by
spontaneous mutations.
Diffrence between spontaneous and induced mutations

S.N. Spontaneous mutations Induced mutation

1. They occur spontaneously in nature They are induced artificially.

2. They occur due to natural They are produced by

conditions exposing
plants to physical
3. Frequency of occurrence is very slow Frequency of occurrence is
higher.
4. They are basis of crop improvement by They are basis of crop
conventional methods. improvement by mutation
breeding
 Probable agencies inducing mutation:
Mutagens/Mutagenic agents: Agents used for induction of mutations
They are of two types.
A) Physical (Radiation) mutagens:
I) Ionizing (Short length): lonizing radiation cause both gene and chromosome mutation e.g. Alpha (a), Beta (B),
Gamma (Y), X-ray and thermal neutrons.
ii) Non-Ionizing: Ultraviolet radiation.
B) Chemical mutagens: Mutagenic chemicals like cumarin, colchicines, ausculine, hydroxyl guanidine, mustard
compounds and other chemicals.

General characteristics of mutation:

1.Gene mutation is sudden variations resulting from chemical, structural or positional changes of gene. If
they occur in the gene cells, they become part of hereditary material. If they occur in the somatic body, they
may affects only one cell or whole group of cells, but these somatic mutations do not become part of heredity
material.
2.Mutation generally occur in gene at a time
3.Mutation rates differ in different genes, varying from very low frequency in some gene to relatively high
frequency in other genes and the rates may be inherent or may be influenced by the environment .
4. Mutations are more likely to occur in some parts of the chromosomes than the others.

5. Mutation from a normal type to new allele is called direct mutation and from mutant allele back to the
normal type is called reverse mutation.

6.Mutations have different types of effects from almost no visible changes up to lethal effect.

7.Mutations are usually recessive and generally harmful or lethal.

8.Mutations may occur at any time probably most frequently at mutation division.

9. Mutations that are dominant show up at once.

10. Mutations that are sex linked recessives show up at once in males.

11. Spontaneous mutations occur in appreciable frequency.

12. Mutation can be induced by radiation, Temperature changes, and chemical agents and are proportional to
the dosage, within viable limits of the treatment given.

13. Mutation can be defected by breeding experiment.

Significance of Mutations:

1. It helps to create variation or. for increasing genetic variability in population.

2. It is useful for improvement in quantitative characters.

3. It is used for breaking linkage between desirable and undesirable genes.

4. It is useful for improvement in disease resistance, quality aspects, etc.

Lecture No. 7. CHROMOSOME AND ITS ABNORMALITIE

Chromosome: Waldeyer (1888) introduced the name chromosome for frst

time, (Chroma means colour and soma means body).
Definition: “Chromosomes are dark staining thread or rod like bodies carrying
hereditary material, located in the nucleus of the cell."
They are capable of self-reproduction and play important role in heredity.
They carry genes i.e., hereditary materials. These chromosomes are
resposible for the determination of sex transmission of heredity character to the
offspring and they occure in pairs
The number is constant in each species of plants and animals.
The chromosomes number (2n) in some livestock are as fallows:
1.Cattle- 6O
ii) Buffalo - 50,
iii) Sheep - 54,
vi) Pig-38,
iv) Goat-60,
v) Horse- 64,
vil) Dog-78,
viii) Poultry-78,
Ix) Human -46.
Any change in the normal number of structure of chromosomes leads to
genetic defects in an individual.
Heredity means the characters which are transmitted from parents to progeny
generation to generation and express the resemblance to the parents.

Types of chromosomes:
I) According to the position of centromere chromosomes are described as:
1. Metacentric/Median: Centromere is present in the center of chromosóme and
hence two arms are of equal length. Chromosomes show 'V' shape during
anaphase.
2. Sub-metacentric/sub-Median: Centromere is situated some distance away
from the middle portion. Arms are of unequal length Chromosomes show 'L'
shape during anaphage.
3.Acrocentric/sub-terminal:Centromere is situated near the end of
chromosomes. One arm is almost absent but not completely.Chromosome
shows rod shape during anaphase.
4.Telocentric/Terminal: One arm is completely absent.

II) According to length chromosomes are also distinguished as long, medium

and short.
III) According to number of Centromere, chromosomes are of three types
1. Acentric chromosome: A chromosome without centromere (Laggard during
cell division).
2. Monocentric chromosome: A chromosome with one centromere( Normal).
3. Dicentric chromosome: A chromosome with two centromeres Produced due
to inversion and translocations)
IV) According to shape at anaphase, chromosomes are of three types;
viz. V shape chromosome, J shape chromosome and rod shape chromosome
V) According to structure and appearance, chromosomes are of two types
viz. Linear in eukaryotic and circular in bacteria and viruses.
VI) According to essentiality, chromosomes are of two types;
1.A-chromosome: Normal members of chromosome complements of a species
which are essential for normal growth and development.
2.B-chromosome: Accessory, supernumerary or extra chromosomes other than
normal chromosome complement of a species which are not essential for
normal growth and development..
VII) According to role in sex determination chromosomes are of two types
1.Allosomes: Chromosomes which differ in morphology and number
in male and female sex and contain sex determining genes e.g. X and Y
or Z and W types.
2.Autosomes: Chromosomes which do not differ in morphology and number in
male and female sex and rarely contain sex determining genes.
Genetic significance of chromosomes:

1.As DNA is the genetic material, it provides the genetic information for various
cellular functions essential for survival, growth, development, reproduction, etc.
of organisms
2.protect the genetic material (DNA) from the damage during cell.
3.The chromosomal properties ensures a precise distribution of DNA to the
daughter nuclei during cell division.
4.During cell division due to spindle fibers there is a regular and directional
movement of the genetic material.
5.In eukaryotes, chromosomes participate in regulation of gene action as they
are associated with histone and non-histone proteins.

CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATION
Definition: "Abnormal behavior of chromosomes is called chromosomal
aberration., Which plays important role in genetic arrangement and thereb
influence the expression of character.
Two main types of chromosomal aberration occur. This is carried out by
following ways."
I.Variations in the normal structure and arrangement of chromosome
This includes
i) Non-disjunction,
ii) Deletion,
iii) Inversion,
iv) Duplication,
v) Translocation.
II.Variation in normal number of chromosomes known as ploidy
A. Non-disjunction:
In this case one or more homologous pair of chromosomes fails to
seperate during gamete formation. Zygote is forned by uniting a normal
RAmete with a gamete of an extra chromosome; develop into abnormal
jndividual causing variation.
B. Abnormalities resulting from chromosome breakages:
1.Deletion: Loss of a segment of chromosome containing one or more genes is
called deletion.This happens when a broken segment fail to region the segment
having centromere.Deletion results in loss of genes and causes death or
abnormalities depending upon the fupction of gene lost.
2.Inversion: When a segment of chromosome breaks off and the opposite end
and tesulting in the inverse order of genes causing a variation.
3. Duplication: When broken of segment of one chromosome gets Arached to
the homologous pairs, a condition is obtained where certain genes are present
in double dose in one chromosome while Some genes anre deficit in other
chromosome, This condition is known as duplication of genes which causing a
change.
4.Translocation; A small part of chromosome gets broken and attached to
another chromosome usually of another pair he phenomenon is known as
translocation. A new sex linkage is formed when translocation occurs in sex
chromosome.
C) Polyploidy:
A decrease or increase in number of chromosomes, adding or subtracting a
part or whole set of haploid complement is called polyploidy which results in
variation. This occurs more in plants than in anima
Significance of chromosomal aberrations:
1.Deletions play important role in species formation and releasing vaniability.
They are important cytological tools for mapping genes
2.Duplications lead to addition of some genes in a population which play
iaportant role in evolution.
3.Inversions play important role in evolution of new species by changing the
karyotype of individual as deletions and duplications are produced
4.Translocation alter the chromosome size ,number and karyotype which play
role in species formation they are useful for locating gene position , centromere
and other genetic markers on chromosome.
Lecturen No.10. QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE TRAITS

Qualitative trait:
i. Definition: "The trait which are controlled by one or few genes and which
exhibit discontinuous variation i e, those in which variation fall into few Cleary
classes is called as Qualitative Traits".
ii. A qualitative trait is expressed qualitatively, which means that the phenotype
falls into different categories. These categories do not necessarily have a
certain order.
iii. The pattern of inheritance for a qualitative trait is typically
monogenetic,which means that the trait is only influenced by a single gene.
Inherited diseases caused by single mutations are good examples of qualitative
traits. Another is blood type.
iv. Little affected by environmental.
v.Most of variation in qualitative can be attributed to one or few genes.

Quantitative traits:
i. Definition: "The trait which are controlled by many genes and which inhibit
continuous variation and there are small gradation in expression from one
extreme to other is called as quantitative traits.
ii. A quantitative trait shows continued variation.
iii.This is because the trait is the sum of seyeral small effects caused by the
gene.
iv. An example of this is an animal's metabolism, which is under the influence of
many different genes. The final products of the metabolism as for instance milk
yield or growth rate, are good examples of quantitative traits.
If several small gene effects are present, the phenotype values for a population
will typically have a normal distribution.
Characteristic: 1. Polygenic inheritance, 2. Large environmental effect.
LECTURE NO. 10. CLSSIFICATION OF FEEDS AND FODDER

Feed: The tern1 feed is generally referred to any type of consumed by the
animal. It many be grass , grains, water air ,bone meal, blood meal etc. The
feed and fodders supports the nourishment and up keep of body organs.
Complete starvation leads to death of the ani1nal in few days. While, balanced
feeding maintain good health-and productivity.
Feeding stuffs are divided into four classes:-
A. Roughages,
B. Concentrates,
C. Supplements,
D. Additives:-
A. Roughages:-
Definition: "Roughages are feeds containing more than 18% crude fiber
and less than 60% TDN " ·
I. -Roughages are poor in nutritive values.
II. _They are rich in CHO and ash.
III. Roughages carry big cellulose and related compounds.
Iv. They bulky in nature and
v. They have low digestibility than concentrates.
vi. They are cheap as compared to concentrate.
B. Concentrates :-
Definition: "These are .the feedstuffs which contain less than 18% CF
and more than 60% TDN."
i. The term concentrates is used because all the nutrient content of feed are
more in concentrated form.
ii. Concentrate is rich in nutritive values
iii. The Concentrates are palatable and easy to digest.
iv . They are costly as compare roughages.
v. Feeds of these groups are the green of cereals. Legumes and their by
products oil cake, feeds of animals origin and molasses.
C. Supplements:-
Definition:- "The supplement are those nutrients which are already present in
the feed but not in adequate quantity, they are supply externally to recover the
deficiency".
These are minerals and vitamins which are required to added in feed and
supplements to cover up the deficit in the ration.
D. Additives :-
Definition:-"The additives are those ingredients of the feeds which are not
nutrients but added in the feed by virtue of their characteristic for various
purpose i.e. prevention of disease increasing the palatability".
eg-Antibiotics, hormones ,coloring agent, and vermicides are used as additives.
Special feeds:-
I. Urea:-
it is the protein nitrogenous (NPN) substance used as a source of nitrogen for
ruminant animals. The ruminant can synthesis microbial protein from the
nitrogen source and full fill their protein requirement. Feed grade urea contains
45% nitrogen an can replace about 30% of protein in the ration of adult animal
or can be added @2% of concentrate mixture .For efficient utilization of urea,
the deadly available energy source like starch or molasses should be included
in the diet.
2. Molasses:-
It is by product obtained from sugar industry. It is excellent source
of energy. It improves the palatability of ration. It reduces the dustiness of
ration. It is used up to 10-15% in ration of ruminants. It can be used as binder
for pelleting . It stimulates the rumen microbial activity. Molasses is good source
of minor minerals.
Non protein nitrogenous feed stuff :urea , nitrates , nucleic acid , purines,
pyrimidine.
 SYSTEMS OF BREEDING

A number of breeding systems are available for improving the performance of dairy
animals in terms of growth, production and reproduction. The aim of breeding systems is
breed improvement.
The system of breeding to be used depends on livestock operation, goals of the farmer or
breeder and size of the herd etc.
 Systems of breeding

Inbreeding Out breeding

Close breeding Line breeding

Outcrossing Cross breeding Grading up Species Hybridization

Rotational crossing Back crossing Two breed crossing Three breed crossing

Criss crossing Triple crossing

Inbreeding
Inbreeding is the mating of closely related individuals
e.g. Full sibs, Mother X Son, Father X Daughter

Advantages:
1. Increase in homozygosity and decrease heterozygosity
2. It helps in development of families and inbred lines
3. It is only known method of increasing prepotency
4. It helps in elimination of of undesirable recessive genes
5. It help to obtain pure breed animals, which are genetically uniform.
6. It increases uniformity in productive characters.
7. It helps in selection of desirable and culling of undesirable animals

Disadvantages:
8. It decreases growth rate, body size and body weight.
9. It reduces reproductive efficiency and general vigour.
10. It delays puberty in both sexes.
11. It increases early embryonic death rate.
12. It reduces adaptive traits to adverse conditions and fitness.
13. It increases mortality in progeny.
14. It causes drop in milk production in cows, wool production in sheep and egg production in
poultry.
15. It increases susceptibility to infection and adverse environmental factors.
 Selection methods
Selection
Selection is defined as certain individuals in a population are
selected and allowed to participate in mating to contribute in
progeny generation to which other individuals are not allowed.

Basis of selection
1. Individual selection
2. Pedigree selection
3. Progeny testing
1. Individual selection
Performance test is a measure of the individual candidate for selection
 Since the phenotypic value is determined by both genetic & environmental influences.
 The performance test is an estimate, not a measure of the genetic value.
 performance test should be the backbone of most selection programme.

Advantages :

High accuracy among simple procedures the performance test is the most accurate.
Environmental influences can be minimized by testing candidates for selection in the
same pen or in similar environmental condition.
The measure is direct, not on a relative basis

All candidates for selection can be tested in few parents can be tested i.e. allows a high
selection differential.
 Generation intervals are usually very short.
 Testing can be done on the farm under normal management conditions.
Very effective when heritability of the trait is high.
Disadvantages :

Accuracy becomes low when heritability is low.

Phenotypes are not available for one sex in sex-limited traits such as milk
yield /egg production.

Traits which are not expressed until maturity may become expensive since most
selection decision must be made before maturity.
2. Pedigree selection:
"Selection on the basis of performance of ancestor.
"Pedigree selection is used when inadequate information is available about the
individual, such as, when selection decision must be made before theindividual
expresses the traits & when dealing with sex-limited traits.
Pedigree selection is based on the fact that relative possess many of the same genes, thus
an estimate of the breeding value of the one animal provides some information
about the breeding value of his relatives.
Advantages :
i. Useful when inadequate information is available about the individuals.
ii. Helps in selection of individuals at young age.
iii. Very useful when traits selected are highly heritable.
iv. It allows selection of both sexes for sex limited traits, i.e. bulls can be selected on the
milk records of their female relatives.
v. It provides information when performance test are not available for candidate
vi. It provides information to supplement performance test information.
vii. Pedigree records may be used to select animals for testing
Disadvantage :
 Accuracy is low as compared to other methods.
Too much emphasis is given on relative like remote relatives.
 Progeny of favored parents are often environmentally favored.
3. Progeny testing:
Progeny testing is a special form of pedigree evaluation where the
parents are chosen on the basis of phenotype performance of their
progeny. The selection of individuals on the basis of average
performance of their progeny.
Advantages :
High accuracy when many progeny are obtained.
Useful for selection of sex limited traits.
Useful for selection of males.
Disadvantages:
 Long generation interval.
Requires high productive rate.
 Low selection intensity.
Methods of selection
A) Tandem method:
 In this method only one trait is selected at a time till the goal set for this
character is achieved.
 Thereafter, selection is directed to another trait till goal of trait is also
achieved.
 Tandem selection is a method of artificial selection in which useful traits are
selected for sequentially.
 The efficiency of this method depends on genetic correlation (G.C.) bet the
trait selected for it.
 If the G.C. is positive, the improvement in one trait would automatically
results in improvement in other trait which is not selected for selection Ex.
Selection of egg weight will results in improvement of egg size.
 If G.C. is negative, the improvement in one trait results reduction in
performance of other trait. Ex-Selection for milk yield production in cattle will
results in lowering the fat % in milk.
Advantages :
Tandem selection is a method of artificial selection in which useful traits are
selected for sequentially.
Selecting those with the best one trait say those that produce higher milk yield,
& then what that traits is at satisfactory level.
Selection for one trait results in improvement in other traits.

Disadvantages :
This is highly inefficient method, if traits are not genetically related.
The rate of genetic improvement is very slow.
B) Independent culling method:
In this method, selection may be practices for two or more traits simultaneously.
For each trait a minimum standard is set.
Every animal must meet to a minimum standard for each of the traits. otherwise it
will be rejected from the breeding population
The effectiveness of this method depends on standard chosen for each of the traits.

Advantages:
 Selection can be practiced for two or more traits simultaneously.
Superior to Tandem method.
Rate of progress per unit time is more as compared to Tandem method.
 Animals which do not meet the minimum standard can be culled at an early age

Disadvantages :
The animal which are superior in one trait and little inferior in other trait are also culled.
The no. of animals selected will be very small, if high standard is fixed.
The adequate no. of animals are not culled, if low standard is fixed
C) Selection Index / Total Score Method:

In this method several traits are selected simultaneously

It is most effective method of mass selection.
The selection is made on the basis of selection index.
The selection index is calculated for each individual based on different traits.
Selection index calculated is depends on

a) Relative economics of trait

b) Heritability of traits
c) Genetic correlation between traits

Individuals with higher selection index are selected for breeding.

 The genetic & phenotypic variants, Va & Vp every traits.
Advantages :
It is superior to both Tandem & Independent culling method.
Selection can be made for several traits at a time.
The superiority of this method increases as the no. of traits increases.
There is maximum progress per unit time.
 Less efforts are required.

Disadvantages :
Use of selection index sometimes results into masking certain bad characters.
 Practical indexes are not available for all classes of animal.
D) Show ring selection:

Show ring selection has been directed toward bringing the conformation of the animals to
some ideal conformation.
The improvement has been based on two goals
a) improvement of conformation.
b) Co-related response.

Advantages :
 It enables breeders to exchange ideas & experiences.
 It allows comparison among superior animals both within & between breeds.
 It allows new breeders to make contact with established breeders.

Disadvantages :
 Conformation & production traits usually have low genetic co-relations.
 Mall differences between exhibited animals are usually small.
 COMPOSITION OF PLANT AND ANIMAL
Plants are able to synthesize complex materials from simple substance such CO ₂
from water & air & inorganic material from soil. Plant and animal contain as similar type of
chemical substances but the relative amount present is variable the gross composition of
plant and animal body is made up of water, protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins & mineral
elements.

A) COMPOSITION OF PLANT:
1) Water:
✓ Main component of plant, which act as a media for absorbing the nutrients form, soil for
plant growth as the plant matures.
✓ The water content of plant decreases and seed are formed.
✓ Green succulent fodder content 70-80% water
✓ Dry fodder contain 10-15% water
✓ Concentrates contain 8-10% water.
2) Carbohydrates:

It is a principles constituent of the plant cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin surve as:

✓ Structural element for plant body.

✓ Cell wall of plant composed of cellulose.
✓ Starch is major storage of carbohydrate in plant.
✓ Plant seed rich is starch.
✓ It is reserve source of energy during germination of seeds.
3) Fats:
It is also higher in leaves as compared to stem and generally highest in seed.

4) Proteins:
a) Protein are major nitrogen containing compound protein present
b) It is constitute of active tissue and hence leaves are rich in plant.
c) Protein content (leguminous green fodder) plant contains more proteins.

5) Lipids:
Content of plant is relatively low.

6) Mineral matter
d) Content of plant is highly variable.
e) Legume are always rich in calcium.
B) COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODY:

Water:

It is principles constituent of animal body and over 50% of the body weight consist of
water.

Animal tissue contains 70-90% water. It content declines with the increase in age of
animal.

 Animal embryo contains 95% water which decrease at birth to 75%.

 Adult animal contains 50-60% water.

Carbohydrates:

It is content of animal body is less than 1%.

Very rapid rate for energy production in the body and these accounts for their
small amount.

Carbohydrate is very vital role in body physiology, glucose and glycogen are
main animal body.

 Mainly present in the liver, muscles and blood.

 Mainly present in the form of Glycogen

Proteins:
✓Protein is present in every cell and is known as building blocks of animal body.
✓ They are major constituents of muscles, tendons and connective tissue
✓ Proteins are the constituents of antibodies, hormones and enzymes of animal
body.

Fat:
✓ Mostly it is localized in a diapause tissue or fat deposit which occurs underskin
around kidneys and other organs as well as present in muscles, bones.
✓ Animal body fat contents depend upon the level of feeding.

Mineral matter:
Animal body content 3-5% mineral matter.
More than 98% calcium is present in teeth and bones as phosphate and hydroxide
Phosphorous accounts for approximately 85% of body.
Iron and copper are essential constituent of hemoglobin in the blood.
Magnesium present in bone.
Sulphur occurs as a part of protein molecules many enzymes are present.
Sr. No. Name Water Cho % Protein % Fat % Ash %

1 Maize 69 26 2.5 0.8 17

2 Berseem 73 19 2.5 0.8 2.0

3 Maize Green 14 72 5.2 3.9 1.3

4 New Born Calf 74 8.8 3.0 4.0 -

5 Adult Cattle 64 >1% 19 12 5.0

6 Adult 43 1 19 41 5.0

7 Dairy Cow 57 0.2 13 20 5.0

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL BODY

Nutrient Animal body Plant body

Embryo-95% Green fodder 80-90%
Water At birth-75-80% Dry fodders 10-30%
Adult-40-45% Decreases with maturity
Principal constituent of active
Structural units of every
tissue
Protein Tissue
Oilseeds &pulse contain more
Average 21%
protein
Less than 1% Major component of plant
CHO Present in the form of glucose & Present in form of sugar ellulose
glycogen hemicellulose & starch
varies from 3-46%
Leaves richer than stem
Fats present in adipose tissue & fats
Oilseed contain higher amount.
depots
Present in very small amount. Carotene, a precursor of vitamin A in
Vitamins
Component of various green enzyme
 CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDS AND FODDER

Roughages Concentrates Supplements Additives

Eg. Additives

Dry Succulent
i. Hay Minerals Vitamins
ii. Straw

Pastures Green Tree leaves Silage Root crops

i. legume
ii. non legume

Protein rich Energy rich

Plant Animal blood Marine fish Avian feather Yeast

meal meal meal

Grains Mill byproducts Root crops