Aerospace Design and

Systems Engineering Elements I

By:
R. Vos FPP The Design of the
J.A. Melkert
FPP
B.T.C. Zandbergen SSE
Fuselage

1
Conceptual Aircraft Design Process in “Elements I”
Requirements 1

Fuselage design
5
Class I weight
estimation
2 Wing design 6
Initial layout
Wing loading,
Propulsion
power loading 6
3 You need:
= geometric
Tail design 7
Configuration compass, ruler,
pencil (+eraser!)
selection
4 = calculator
gear design 7

= ideas

2
Contents

• Functions and Design Considerations

• Procedure for Fuselage Layout and Cockpit Design
1. List of the payload, crew and operational items
2. Decide on a fuselage shape
3. Design the fuselage cross section
4. Design the fuselage in top view
5. Design the fuselage in side view

• Examples of fuselage design

– 2-passenger general-aviation aircraft
– 360-passenger transport aircraft

• Appendices with data, examples, and regulations

3
Functions and Design Considerations

4
Main functions of the fuselage
The fuselage of an aircraft must…

• contain the payload (passengers, cargo, eventually

expendable ordnance)
• allow easy loading and unloading (also in case of
emergency)
• offer protection against climatic factors (cold, heat, low
pressure, wind)
• protect from external noise
• house cockpit (typically in the nose)
• provide structural support for the attachment of wing,
empennages, landing gear, engines…
• provide space for systems, engines, landing gear, APU, fuel
tanks.
•… 5
The design of the fuselage: general considerations
What drives the design of the fuselage?

• Payload requirements

• Aerodynamic considerations

• Structural considerations

• Ground handling constraints

The fuselage is typically designed from the inside outwards

6
The design of the fuselage: general considerations

For a given payload, larger fuselages provide higher level of comfort, whereas
small fuselages yield lower drag, hence lower consumption and costs.
The fuselage drag represents 20-40% of the zero-lift drag.
For a given fuselage length, a 10% larger fuselage diameter yields a 1.5-
3% increase in total drag
…hence more thrust will be required, hence more fuel, larger wing and
engines, hence heavier structure and so on, with the infamous snowball weight
growth effect!

Eventually, the passenger comfort yielded by a large size fuselage cross

section has to be traded against the increased weight and costs.

7
The design of the fuselage: payload requirements

Wing crossing
(You will have to make an
estimation of the wing root
chord length!)

Forward hold After hold Bulk hold

8
The design of the fuselage: payload requirements

9
The design of the fuselage: aerodynamic considerations

Nosecone Tailcone

𝒍𝒇

: fineness (slenderness) ratio*

* Sometimes also

10
The design of the fuselage: aerodynamic considerations

Resultant zero-lift
drag coefficient

Pressure (or form)

0.3 drag contribution

Friction drag contribution

Effect of fineness ratio on the contributions of viscous and

pressure drag on the overall drag of a SUBSONIC body
Source: Corke
11
The design of the fuselage: aerodynamic considerations

Typical single
Typical subsonic
engine Resultant zero-lift
jet transports [0.125 , 0.2]
[0.08 - 0.12]
drag coefficient
(l/d: 5 – 8)
(l/d: 8 – 12)

Pressure (or form)

0.3 drag contribution

Typical
supersonic Friction drag contribution
[0.04 , 0.05]
(l/d: 20 – 25)

Effect of fineness ratio on the contributions of viscous and

pressure drag on the overall drag of a SUBSONIC body
Source: Corke
12
The design of the fuselage: structural considerations

Piaggio P-180
Image: Mike James

13
The design of the fuselage: structural considerations

The structure must be sufficiently strong, rigid and light. It must be durable,
easy to inspect and maintain.

The circular cross section is the most suitable concerning the capability to
carry pressurization loads (tension loading vs bending loading).

The fuselage is not only providing support for empennages (vertical and
horizontal planes), but due to its inherent destabilizing aerodynamic effect
(pitch and yaw moment proportional to the volume), affects directly their size.

14
The design of the fuselage: structural considerations

Source: Niu, Airframe Structural Design

15
The design of the fuselage: structural considerations
Typical frames
Cross section structure: detail of floor support structure pitch: circa 50 cm

Source: Niu, Airframe Structural Design

16
The design of the fuselage: structural considerations
Examples of wing carry-through structure

Source: D. Raymer
17
The design of the fuselage: structural considerations
Examples of wing carry-through structure

Center wing box MLG bay

A350: Wing box carry-through F35: Ring frames

Source: theflyingengineer.com Source: F-16.net

Boeing concept plane: strut-braced wing F111: bending beam

Source: aviationweek.com Source: World military aircraft, File 121, sheet 03
18
The design of the fuselage: structural considerations

Source: Niu, Airframe Structural Design

19
The design of the fuselage: ground handling considerations

20
The design of the fuselage: ground handling considerations

21
Procedure for Fuselage Layout
and Cockpit Design

Quick sizing method based on Roskam, Raymer, Torenbeek, Nati,

Scholz, Gudmundsson and Jenkinson.

22
Step 1: List of the payload, crew and operational items

1. Nr. of cockpit crew and cabin crew

2. Passengers number and class distribution

3. Luggage volume: carry-on + checked

4. Cargo volume: containerised / bulk

5. Operational items and associated volume

6. Optional: Armament volume

7. Optional: Auxiliary Power Unit

8. Optional: fuel volume inside the fuselage

23
Step 2: Choose a General Fuselage Shape

Three main designs

1. Cylindrical fuselage

2. Frustum design

3. Tadpole design

Source: Aerokurier

Source: livescience

24
Step 3: Design of the Cross Section

25
Design of the fuselage cross section

Boeing 767 Airbus A300 Boeing 777

Lockheed L-1011 McDonnell Douglas DC-10 Boeing 747

26
Design of the fuselage cross section
Why the so common circular shape of the cross section?
• For a more efficient use of material to carry the pressurization loads
(tension vs bending) and minimize structural weight
• To minimize the wetted area surrounding a given volume in order to
minimize friction drag
• To avoid corners because of flow separation even at small angle of attack
or sideslip
Deviations with respect to the circular cross sections configuration are
anyway common. Often they are just necessary.

27
Design of the fuselage cross section
Examples of conceptual studies

Design studies for the A380 The Boeing 787 double

fuselage cross section bubble fuselage design

28
Design of the fuselage cross section

Examples of double-bubble cross sections

29
Design of the fuselage cross section

The cross section is typically designed to envelope the payload.

The resulting shape can depart from the structurally optimum circular section

30
Design of the fuselage cross section

A two levels floor allows higher cabin height.

This is possible when there is available space in the fuselage belly

31
Design of the fuselage cross section
Why is the smallest diameter a design objective?
• The fuselage diameter effects wetted area and structural mass
• The combined effect can have a snowballing effect on the OEM and MTOM
• This is shown in the notional examples below

A320 A320 +10% Δ (%) B777 B777 +10% Δ (%)

Dfus (m) 3.97 4.35 10 6.20 6.82 10

CD0 (cts) 181 188 4 141 146 4

Wfus (t) 8.8 9.6 9 47.7 60.4 27

OEM (t) 40.9 43.7 7 167 198 18

MTOM (t) 75.4 78.8 4 303 357 18

32
 Examples of non circular fuselage cross sections
Vertical poles or walls to sustain shape under pressurization loads

Aurora D8 (images: Auros.aero/d8

33
Examples of non circular fuselage cross sections

34
Examples of non circular fuselage cross sections

The Shorts 360

(Non pressurised cabin)

Source www.aerocondor.fr

35
Examples of non circular fuselage cross sections

An aircraft or a boat? …a flyingboat!

Canadair 415

Spray rails V-shaped hull for water loads resistance

Keel for loads handling and directional stability during

water operations
36
 Examples of non circular fuselage cross sections

Northwestflightschool.com

Cirrusaircraft.com
Cessna 172
Cirrus SR 22

Airliners.net

Plane and pilot magazine

Pipistrel Panthera Blackshape Prime

37
Cabin Interior Design

How many aisles? How many decks?

Long Short

range range

Seat width (in) 17 - 28 16 -18

Seat pitch (in) 34 - 40 30 - 32

Headroom (in) > 65 -

Aisle Width (in) 20 -28 > 15

Aisle Height (in) >76 > 60

Lavatories/passengers 1/ (10-20) 1/ (40 -50)

Galley volume/passengers (ft3) 1- 8 0-1

Baggage/passengers (lbs) 40 - 60 40

38
 sclearance
Design of the Cabin Cross Section wcargo

Determine required cabin width:

hmax-width
1. For cargo with fixed dimensions:

wpax
2. For small passenger aircraft: sclearance sclearance

3. For large passenger aircraft:

hmax-width
1. Number of seats abreast
2. Number of aisles: if then 1 aisle
if then 2 aisles
3. Width of aisles (>20 pax, cm) cm

4. Seat and arm-rest width: and are design choices

39
Design of the Cabin Cross Section
CL

haisle
𝑤headroom

𝑤aisle h headroom
𝑠clearance
hshoulder 𝑤 cabin

𝑤seat
floor

40
Overhead Storage Design

VOS = (nOS,lat . AOS,lat + nOS,ce . AOS,ce) lcabin . kOS

nOS,lat = number of lateral rows of overhead storage

nOS,ce = number of central rows of overhead storage

AOS,lat = cross-sectional area of lateral overhead storage

AOS,ce= cross-sectional area of central overhead storage Boeing 787, nOS,ce = 1, nOS,lat = 2

Average*:
kOS = 0.74

AOS,lat = 0.20 m2

AOS,lce = 0.24 m2

Fokker 50, nOS,ce = 0, nOS,lat = 2

41
Cargo Compartment Design

Estimating required cargo compartment

(CC) volume:

Required:

VCC = volume of the cargo compartment

VOS = volume of overhead storage

Vluggage = mLuggage / ρLuggage

typical ρLuggage = 170 kg/m3

VCargo = mCargo / ρCargo

typical ρcargo = 160 kg/m3

42
Design of the fuselage cross section

Standard
cargo
container

Souce Jenkinson

43
Structural Dimensions

44
Structural Dimensions

Things to take into account:

-Floor beam height 80 - 250 mm
- Floor panel 10 mm
- Seat rail height 5 - 65 mm
- Cargo hold ceiling 10 mm
=> Typical floor height 100 - 300 mm
- Skin thickness 2 - 4 mm
- Stringer height 30 - 40 mm
- Frame height 50 - 100 mm
- Insulation 25 - 35 mm
- Lining panel 5 - 10 mm
=> Distance inner lining – outer contour 100 - 200 mm Source: Airbus

45
 Structural Dimensions

Account for appropriate distances for structural depth of the wall:

1. Small commercial airplanes (less than 20 passengers): 40 mm
2. Fighters and trainers: 50 mm
3. Large transport aircraft: m

Source:newsok.com Source:flightglobal.com

Cessna Caravan Boeing 737

46
Design of the Cabin Cross Section
CL

1. Compute dimensions of
𝑤headroom haisle
passenger cabin
2. Draw upper-deck space allocation h headroom
3. Add floor structure depth
4. Draw cargo deck space allocation
𝑤 cabin
5. Identify corner points 𝑤aisle
hshoulder
6. Draw smallest circle(s)* around
corners and measure
𝑤 cargo
7. Compute and draw outer wall h cargo
8. Add cargo floor and overhead bin 𝑨𝒄𝒄
space
h 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

47
Design of the Cabin Cross Section

Objective: minimize
perimeter length

48
Design of the Cabin Cross Section

Equivalent diameter: 𝑑eff =√ 𝐻 ×𝑊

Absolute minimum dimensions for upright seating

Minimum recommended dimensions: width 22 inch (55.9 cm)

(per person) height 48 inch (121.9 cm)
Source: Gudmondson

49
Step 4: Design of Fuselage in Top View

50
Design of the fuselage in Top View
Definitions:

Fuselage length

Length of the cabin

Cylindrical part of the fuselage

cockpit Tail

𝑑 𝑓 ,𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟

Nose cone Tail cone

51
Source: flightlineaviationmedia.com
Design of the Cabin Floor Plan
Design drivers:

1. Type of seating (first, business, economy) Source: Schmitt + Airbus

Short Medium range Long range

range
Economy Business Economy First Business Economy
Class class class class class class
Seat allocation (%) 100 8-10 90-92 5-7 18-20 73-77
Seat pitch (in) 32 40 32 60 38 32
Seat width (in) 20 24 20 29 25 20
Arm rest (in) 2 2 2 2 2 2

2. Cabin provisions (toilets, galleys, closets, etc.)

3. Seating for the crew

4. Access doors, emergency exits

52
Design of the Cabin Floor Plan
Source: Corke B757 DC-10

Source: seat guru

Number of rows and seat pitch drive
the length of the fuselage cabin.

B757 DC-10 53
Galleys and toilets

54
 Design of the Fuselage in Top View 𝑤 cabin

Example: , in, 𝑙S
,

𝑙 pax =22.7 𝑚
𝑙 𝑐𝑝 =4 𝑚 𝑙 𝑐 =29.5 𝑚 𝑙𝑡 =6.6 𝑚

Observation:  Galley
𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑛 Lavatory
Cross aisle
Cockpit length:
Typical for airliners: Tail length ratio:

55
Fuselage tail cone: aerodynamic considerations

Source Torenbeek

56
Fuselage nose: aerodynamic considerations

Source Kroo

57
The design of the fuselage: aerodynamic considerations
Upsweep
Aircraft type lf/d ltc/d
angle (deg)

Source Roskam

58
 Design of the Fuselage in Top View
Example: ,

𝑙𝑛𝑐 =8 𝑚 𝑙𝑡𝑐 =12𝑚

𝑙 pax =22.7 𝑚
𝑙 𝑐𝑝 =4 𝑚 𝑙 𝑐 =29.5 𝑚 𝑙𝑡 =6.6 𝑚

59
 Design of the Fuselage in Top View
𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑥 = 1.08 m (for single aisle)
𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑛 = 𝑘
Typical for airliners: 𝑛 𝑆𝐴 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑛 1.17 m (for wide-body aircraft)
Tail cone slenderness ratio
Nose cone slenderness ratio:

𝑙𝑡𝑐 =9.5 𝑚
𝑙𝑛𝑐 =6 𝑚

𝑑 𝑓 =4 𝑚

𝑙 𝑐𝑝 =4 𝑚 𝑙 𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑛=29.5 𝑚 𝑙𝑡 =6.6 𝑚

60
Design of the Fuselage in Top View

𝑤 𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑙 𝑐𝑝
𝑙 𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑡
𝑙𝑛𝑐 𝑙𝑡𝑐

1. Draw fuselage width*

2. Compute cabin length and draw dimensions
3. Add cockpit length and tail length
4. Compute nose cone length and draw it
5. Compute tail cone length and draw it
6. Construct top view perimeter

61
Step 5: Design of Fuselage in Side View

Image: Textron Aviation

62
Design of the Fuselage in Side View

Cockpit window design

Cockpit design Tail cone upsweep

Integration of (emergency) exits

63
 Sizing of the cockpit around the pilot

Civil transport
aircraft

h 𝑝𝑒

floor

𝑙 𝑓𝑑
Source Roskam
64
 Sizing of the cockpit around the pilot

General aviation aircraft

cm

𝑙 𝑓𝑑 Source Roskam 65
 Cockpit design: pilot’s visibility issues

p v iew
Ma xu
Pilot eye
Upward view angle
(ref. Point)
Horiz. view

Over nose angle

W
Ma x
down

in
Grazing view

ds
hi
angle

el
d
(ref. Corke) Over nose angle

in
cl
17

in
Military Transport/

.
Bombers

Military Fighter 11 - 15

General aviation 5 - 10

Commercial transport 11 -20 66

Cockpit design: pilot’s visibility issues

Tu-144 Concorde

The over nose angle must be calculated based on the ability of the pilot to see
and react to the approach lights at decision height (100 ft) during minimum
weather conditions.
The higher the approaching speed and attitude angle, the greater the
overnose angle.

67
 Cockpit design: pilot’s visibility issues

Pilot eye
(ref. Point)

Horiz. view

Over side Over side

angle angle

(ref. Corke) Over side angle (deg)

Military Transport/ 35
Bombers

Military Fighter 40

General aviation 35

Commercial transport 35 68
Cockpit design: pilot’s visibility issues

69
 Cockpit design: pilot’s visibility issues
Example: Cockpit OML modification of NASA D8 aircraft

70
Source: Yutko et al., "Conceptual Design of a D8 Commercial Aircraft", 17th AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations Conference, 2017
Sizing of the flight deck for transport aircraft

flight deck length Number of crew Flight deck overall length

member (ref. Corke)

4 150 in (3.8m)

3 130 in (3.3m)

2 100 in (2.5m)

71
Tail Cone Upsweep

Tail-cone Typically assumed in first design loop (i.e. 14 degrees)

upsweep
angle

Maximum Minimum Minimum

rotation unstick take-off field
angle speed length

MLG length
and long.
position The smallest tail-cone angle results in minimum drag
Hence, design objective is to minimize upsweep angle

Tail-cone upsweep angle

rotation angle

72
Number and type of emergency exit
Minimum number and type of emergency exits per
passengers, for each side of the fuselage (CS 25.807)

No. Pass. Type I Type II Type III Type IV

1-9 1
10-19 1
20-39 1 1
40-79 1 1
80-109 1 2 Tailcone exit
110-139 2 1
140-179 2 2
180-299 Add exits so that 179 plus "seat credits"≥ pass. No.

Seat credit Exit Type

Type A
12 Single Ventral
15 Single Tailcone
35 Pair Type III
40 Pair Type II
45 Pair Type I
110 Pair Type A

Pictures from www.Aviation-safety.net

73
Number and type of emergency exit

Type I Type II overwing Type III Type IV

Decrease in size
Type III Type IV
Pictures from www.Aviation-safety.net

74
Dimensions of emergency exit

Type Location min. dimensions min. step height

width x height (in.) inside: outside (in.)
Type I Floor level 24 x 48 -
Type II floor level 20 x 44 -
overwing 20 x 44 10:27
Type III overwing 20 x 36 24:27
Type IV overwing 19 x 26 29:36
Tailcone aft of pressure hull 20 x 60 24:27
Ventral bottom of fuselage Equiv. Type I -
Type A floor level 42 x 72 -

According to CS 25.807 Toorenbeek and Corke

75
 Number and type of emergency exit
Example: Honda Jet:
minimum: 2 Type IV exits
actual: 1 Type IV exit + 1 Type II exit

Type IV exit

Type II exit

photo: Honda Jet

76
Number and type of emergency exit

Example: Airbus A320: in a high-density cabin configuration

minimum: 2 pair of Type I exits and 2 pair of Type III exits
actual = minimum
Note: door distribution to meet the “90-second” rule

Increase in seat pitch

Cross aisles

Pair of Type I exits Pair of Type I exits

2 pair of Type III exits

Source: theflyingengineer.com

77
Number and type of emergency exit

Example: Airbus A380: in a high-density cabin configuration

minimum: 8 pair of Type A exits
actual = minimum  certified up to 880 passengers

78
Number and type of emergency exit
Type I pax. door
Type I service door
Type I pax. door
Type I service door
Type I pax. door
Type I service door
Type I pax. door
Type I service door
Type A emergency exit
Type A emergency exit
cockpit emergency hatch

www.aviation-safety.net

79
 Fuselage side view design
𝑙𝑛𝑐 𝑙𝑡𝑐
Top View

𝑙 𝑐𝑝
𝑙𝑡
Side View
𝑙 𝑓𝑑
los h 𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒

h 𝑝𝑒
1. Determine fuselage height from cross section*
2. Copy nose cone and tail cone locations from top view
3. Determine flight deck location
4. Draw cabin and flight deck floor location*
5. Determine location of pilot’s eye and field of view outline and draw it
6. Determine the vertical position of nose and tail
7. Construct crown and belly curves
8. Determine the number and type of passenger doors and draw them to scale
9. Copy doors and windshield design to top view
80
Computation of Cargo Compartment area

Estimating cargo compartment (CC) volume:

Available:
VCC = volume of the cargo compartment

lcabin =length of the cabin

ACC = cross-sectional area of the cargo compartment (next slide)

kCC = proportion of the cabin used for cargo (typical 0.35 - 0.55)
𝑙𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑛
𝑙𝐹𝐶𝐶 𝑙 𝐴𝐶𝐶

FCC ACC

Avionics + NLG Wingbox + MLG + systems

81
Computation of Cargo Compartment area

When there is bulk cargo:

1. Measure floor position w.r.t. centre of
the circular arc*,
2. Compute:

𝑅=
1. rad]
h𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑓
 , 𝑖𝑛𝑛
𝑒𝑟
3. Check if the cargo volume is large /2
enough, i.e. 𝐴𝑐𝑐
𝑝
Floor strut
>
Cargo floor

Areas that cannot be used effectively for cargo storage (20%)

82
Examples:

A. Two seat General Aviation aircraft

B. 360-Passenger Transport Jet

83
Two seat General Aviation aircraft
Front view Top view
A
1.25 m
3.7 m

1.20 m
A’
Section AA’ A
Side view

1.25 m

8°

1.20 m
A’

1. Design choice on seating arrangement: side-by-side seating with 20-degree back inclination
2. Draw largest cross section with appropriate clearances and structural depths
3. Design choice on tail-cone slenderness ratio and type: 3.0 / tadpole
4. Draw the fuselage perimeter in top view
5. Draw field of view, system space allocation and decide on fuselage upsweep
6. Draw fuselage perimeter in side view
7. Draw window panes and finish front view 84
360-Passenger Transport Jet
input output
number of passengers 360 n_SA 8.54 9
aisles 2 Assume 9 abreast
k_cabin 1.17 m l_cabin 46.8 m
aisle width 51 cm w_cabin 568 cm
w_seat 46 cm d_f,inner 580 cm
w_armrest 4 cm d_f,outer 6.15 m
s_clearance 2 cm
l_cockpit 4 m
l_tailcone/d_f,outer 3.5 l_tailcone 21.5 m
l_nosecone/d_f,outer 2 l_nosecone 12.3 m
l_tail/d_f,outer 1.6 l_tail 9.8 m
l_fuselage 60.6 m
fuselage structure 0.232 m

floor height 0.3 m

max. width height 1m

LD2 volume 3.8 m^3

LD2 length 1.53 m
luggage per passenger 21 kg
density of luggage 170 kg/m^3
cargo 15000 kg total luggage 7515 kg
cargo density 160 kg/m^3 total luggage volume required 44.2 m^3

A_OS,lat 0.2 m^2 cargo volume required 94 m^3

A_OS,ce 0.24 m^2
n_OS,lat 2 V_OS 22 m^3 Assume 9 container
n_OS,ce 1 cargo hold volume required 72 m^3
nr. Of LD2 containers 18.8 pairs + some bulk
k_OS 0.74 container pair length 27.5 m

85
 360-Passenger Transport Jet
Front view
Cockpit Top view
(4 m) Length of the cabin (46.8 m) Tail (9.8 m)

Cylindrical part of the fuselage

Nosecone (12.3 m) Tail cone (21.5 m)

Fuselage length (60.6 m)

Cross section cm Side view

cm

cm
4 pairs of Type A doors (certified up to 440 pax)

LD2 LD2

86
Summary of Fuselage Design

1. List of the payload, crew and operational items

2. Choose a fuselage shape

3. Design the fuselage cross section

4. Design the fuselage in top view

5. Design the fuselage in side view

87
 Drawing Tutorial

1. We will provide an A4 and an A3 sheet (graph paper)

2. You have to bring your drawing equipment
3. You must have studied the slides and the videos for the first tutorial (links on
the next slide)
4. You are required to draw the fuselage cross section (A4) and the 3 views (A3)
5. Assistance from:

Roelof Vos Joris Melkert George Wijnschenk Dom Sjoerd van Empelen Simone Veldhuizen Stefan Juffermans
88
Drawing Tutorial

Videos for tutorial 1:

1. How to set-up a 3-view drawing by Eddy van den Bos
2. Drawing the fuselage cross section by Joris Melkert
3. The fuselage in the 3-view drawing by Roelof Vos
Find all videos here

Design data for all three tutorials:

The aircraft design data sheet for the aircraft can be found here

89