Carbohydrates, Lipids

and Proteins
Sharad V. Dighe
Asso. Prof. C.O.N.
Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work. In nutrition, energy
deals mostly with the chemical energy locked in
foodstuffs by reason of the chemical bonding present
in the nutrients.
Foods undergo combustion in the body and eventually
yield heat, that heat is not productive . It is largely a
by-product of metabolism generated by the
mechanical activity of muscles. It is useful to maintain
body temperature.
The chemical energy available from foods is
used for muscular work (kinetic energy) , for
brain and nerve activity(electrical energy) and
in synthesis of body tissue( chemical energy).
Man’s source of energy is released by the
metabolism of food and it must be supplied
regularly to meet the energy needs for the
body’s survival.
The foods from which energy is available
(carbohydrate, fat and protein) are converted in
the body to glucose, fatty acids and amino acids
before they reach the cell.
ATP the currency for energy
 ATP(adenosine tri phosphate) can release its energy
instantly for mechanical work(muscle contraction),
transport of material through cell walls and syntheses of
chemical compounds.
 In this reaction adenosine di phosphate (ADP) is formed
which can be phosphorylated to ATP by the oxidative
reactions.
 This process is continuous. ATP has been referred to as
the energy currency of the cell for it can be spent and
remade again and again.
Unit of energy
In human nutrition the unit of energy commonly used
is the “kilogram calorie (k calorie)”, which is a heat
unit.
The calorie is the standard unit for measure of heat.
Since heat is one result of energy generated by the
body, the calorie can serve as a measure of energy
production.
One kilocalorie is the heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 degree
centigrade.
Basal Metabolism
Basal metabolism is the amount of energy required by
the body to carry on the involuntary work of the body.
It includes the functional activities of the various
organs such as brain, heart, liver, kidneys, and lungs,
the secretary activities of the glands, the peristaltic
movements of the gastrointestinal tract & the
maintenance of muscle tone and body temperature
etc.
It is the minimum amount of energy needed by the
body at rest in the fasting state. It indicates the
amount of energy needed to sustain the life processes:
respiration, cellular metabolism, circulation, glandular
activity and the maintenance of body temperature.
It is usually measured by indirect caloriemetry, with
the body at complete physical and mental rest,
relaxed, but not asleep, at least 24 hours after the last
meal and after any strenuous exercise or activity in a
comfortable temperature and humidity about 21
degree to 24 degree.
It is used as an aid to diagnosis, particularly in
endocrine disorders.
Factors affecting basal metabolic rate
1. Surface area
2. Age
3. Sex
4. Body composition
5. Pregnancy
6. Endocrine glands
7. Sleep
8. Fever
9. climate
1) Surface area – The greater the body surface or skin
area(a broad build person), requires more heat to be
produced by the body.
E. g. a thin person has a larger surface area than a
short stout individual of the same weight, and
consequently, a higher basal metabolism. Muscle tissues
requires more oxygen than does adipose tissues.
2)Gender – in general , women have a metabolic rate
about 6 to 10% lower than that of men even when of the
same weight and height. This is believed to be due to
the influence of the sex hormones.

3) Age – The metabolic rate is highest during the periods

of rapid growth, chiefly during the first and second year,
and reaches a lesser peak through the ages of puberty
and adolescence in both sexes. The BMR declines slowly
with increasing age during the adult life probably due to
lower muscle tone from lessened activity.
4) Body composition – A large proportion of inactive
adipose tissue lowers the basal metabolic rate. Athletes
with greater muscular development shows about a 5%
increase in basal metabolism over nonathletic
individuals. The muscular tissues consume relatively
large amounts of oxygen per unit of weight.

5) Pregnancy - during the last trimester of pregnancy

the basal metabolism increases from 15 to 25%. This
increase can be almost entirely by the increase in
weight of a woman and the high rate of metabolism of
the fetus.
6) Endocrine Glands –
The thyroid gland regulates the rate of energy metabolism, and
any change in thyroid activity is reflected in the metabolic rate.
If the thyroid is overactive(hyperthyroidism), the metabolism may
be speeded up as much as 75 to 100%; if the activity of the gland is
decreased (hypothyroidism) , the metabolism may be reduced by
30 to 40%.
The growth hormones that stimulate new tissue formation are
responsible for the higher metabolism that is observed in infants,
children, and teenagers.
An increased excretion of epinephrine during excitement or fear
temporarily raises the metabolic rate.
Disturbances of the pituitary gland may also modify the metabolic
rate. Just prior to the onset of menstrual period the metabolism is
increased slightly.
7) Sleep – During sleep the metabolic rate falls
approximately 10 to 20% below that of waking levels. This
drop is due to muscular relaxation and decreased activity
of the sympathetic nervous system.

8) Fever – Infections or fever increases the BMR about 7%

for each degree rise in body temperature above 98.6
degree F.
9) Climate – persons living in tropical regions exhibit as
much as 10 to 20% lower metabolic rate than those in cold
climate. This is largely a result of the increased secretion
of thyroxine in hot climate. The incidence of
hyperthyroidism tends to be greater in the colder areas
than in the tropical areas.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates furnish most of the energy which is
needed to move, perform work, and live; they are the
starches and sugars.
The chief sources of carbohydrates are grains
(cereals) , potatoes and other roots and tubers,
vegetables, fruits syrups and sugars. Pulses also
provide fair amounts of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are important group of organic
compounds and are composed of carbon , hydrogen
and oxygen.
The carbohydrates are defined as polyhydroxy
aldehydes and ketones. These are synthesized in plant
life by the process of photosynthesis.
Carbohydrates are mainly classified as
monosaccharide's, disaccharides , oligosaccharides ,
and polysaccharides .
1. Monosaccharide's are simple sugars, cannot be
hydrolyzed to a simpler form e.g. glucose
2. Disaccharides may be hydrolyzed to give 2 molecules
of the same or different monosaccharide's.
3. Oligosaccharides yield 3 to 10 monosaccharide units
4. Polysaccharides yield more than 10 units up to 10,000
or more.
Monosaccharide's
Monosaccharide's can not be hydrolyzed to a simpler form.
Glucose, fructose, dextrose , mannose are some examples of
it.
Glucose is the principal product formed by hydrolysis of
more complex carbohydrates in the process of digestion.
It is the form of sugar normally found in the blood stream.
Glucose is oxidized in the cells to give energy and is stored
in the liver and muscles as glycogen.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes to
the constituent monosaccharide's before absorption
into the body.
Sucrose, maltose and lactose are the types of
disaccharides, are made up of 2 hexose molecules.
Sucrose- is ordinary table sugar. It is found mainly in
sugar cane , sugar beets, molasses, maple syrup, and
maple sugar.
Maltose- is a malt sugar does not occur free in nature.
So it is called derived sugar. Maltose is formed during
digestion by the action of enzymes called amylases.
Lactose- is the principal sugar found in milk. It is not
found in plants and is limited almost exclusively to the
mammary glands of lactating animals.
It yields glucose and galactose upon hydrolysis .
It is digested more slowly than other disaccharides.
Some individuals have deficiency of enzyme lactase which
hydrolyzes lactose may have a laxative action or excess can
cause diarrhea.
 It is less sweet than sucrose.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are much more complex carbohydrates.
They are made up of many single sugar(saccharide) units.
The most important in human nutrition is starch .
Other forms are dextrin's and glycogen. Starch and
glycogen are completely digestible.
Other polysaccharides are partially or completely
indigestible.
The nondigestible forms of dietary fiber are cellulose and
other noncellulose polysaccharides provide important bulk
in the diet.
Starch – It is the most important source of dietary
carbohydrates worldwide.
In human nutrition starch is the most significant
polysaccharide.
It is a large complex compound made up of many coiled or
branching chains of simple sugar (glucose) units.
It yields only glucose on digestion.
The cooking of starch not only improves its flavor but also
softens and ruptures the starch cells, which makes
digestion easier.
The major sources of starch include cereal grains, legumes,
potatoes, and other vegetables.
Glycogen – It is formed during cell metabolism in the body
from glucose and stored in liver and muscle tissues .
These stores help sustain normal blood glucose levels during
fasting periods such as sleep hours and provide immediate
fuel for muscle action.
This dietary carbohydrate is essential to maintain these
needed glycogen stores and prevent the symptoms of low
carbohydrate intake- fatigue, dehydration, and energy loss, as
well as other undesirable metabolic effects such as
ketoacidosis and excessive protein breakdown.
Dextrins – are polysaccharide compounds formed as
intermediate products in the breakdown of starch.
This starch breakdown occurs constantly in the process of
digestion.
 Functions of carbohydrates in the body
The body tissues require a constant daily supply of
carbohydrate in the form of glucose in all metabolic reactions.
The amount of carbohydrate in the adult body is about 300 to
350 gm.
 Of this In liver it is stored in the form of glycogen
approximately 100 gram, in muscles 200 to 250gm is present as
glycogen in cardiac, smooth, and skeletal muscles, and about 15
gm makes up the glucose in the blood and extracellular fluids .
carbohydrates provide the skeletons for the synthesis of the
nonessential amino acids by the body.
The primary function of carbohydrate in human nutrition is
to provide fuel for energy production. It serves as a major
and least expensive source of energy for the body. It must be
supplied regularly and at frequent intervals. Each gram of
carbohydrate when oxidized yields , on the average 4 kcal.
Glucose is the primary source of energy for the nervous
system and the lungs.
Carbohydrates acts as protein sparing action. If insufficient
carbohydrates are available in the diet the body will convert
protein to glucose in order to supply energy. It has been
found that for optimum utilization of amino acids for
protein formation carbohydrates must be supplied
simultaneously with the essential amino acids in the same
meal.
The presence of carbohydrates is necessary for normal fat
metabolism.
If there is insufficient carbohydrate, larger amounts of fat
are used for energy than the body is equipped to handle
and oxidation is incomplete. There is an accumulation of
acidic intermediate products(the ketone bodies) and
acidosis results.
These intermediate products lead to dehydration , loss of
body sodium. So Some carbohydrate is necessary in the
diet so that the oxidation of fats can proceed normally.
In liver glucose is stored in the form of glycogen for later
release or to meet energy needs . This glycogen stored in liver
can be converted to glucose to maintain the sugar levels of the
blood glycogen in muscles can be used to supply energy needs
of muscle cells but is not available for regulation of the blood
sugar level. The total glycogen reserves in the body would meet
about half of one day’s energy needs of the adult.
 Glucose as such has a specific influence; it is indispensable for
the maintenance of the functional integrity of the nerve tissue
and is the sole source of energy for the brain. Thus a constant
supply of glucose from the blood is essential for the proper
functioning of these tissues. Any lack of glucose or the oxygen
for its oxidation may cause irreversible damage to the brain.
Lactose has several functions in the gastrointestinal tract.
Lactose remains longer in the intestine than other di
sacchrides and thus promotes the growth of desirable
bacteria , resulting in a laxative action; some of which are
useful in the synthesis of b- complex vitamins. Lactose also
enhances the absorption of calcium.
Cellulose and the closely related insoluble, indigestible
carbohydrates aid in normal elimination. They stimulate
the peristalsis movement of the gastrointestinal tract and
absorb water to give bulk to the intestinal contents.
Metabolism of carbohydrates
Most carbohydrate foods, starches and sugars, cannot
immediately be used by the cells to make energy available.
They must first be changed in to the refined fuel for which
the cell is digested to glucose.
The digestion of carbohydrate foods proceeds through the
successive parts of the gastrointestinal tract, accomplished
by two types of actions
1. Mechanical or muscle functions that render the food
mass into smaller particles
2. Chemical processes in which specific enzymes break
down food nutrients into smaller usable metabolic
products.
The process by which the body transports this basic
end product of carbohydrate digestion to the cells
throughout the body called absorption.

In cell nutrition the most important end product of

carbohydrate digestion is glucose, since the other two
monosaccharide's , fructose and galactose, are
eventually converted to glucose.
Carbohydrate metabolism in liver
Following absorption from the small intestine the
monosaccharides are carried by the portal vein to the
liver.
The liver converts galactose and fructose to glucose
Liver synthesizes glycogen from glucose, store it ;this
process is known as GLYCOGENESIS.
In liver, this stored glycogen is again reconverted to
glucose according to need ; this process is known as
GLYCOGENOLYSIS.
In liver, if the glycogen stores are depleted ,it de-
aminizes amino acids so that the carbon skeletons can
be used for the synthesis of glucose ,this process is
called GLUCONEOGENESIS.
Liver transforms excess glucose into fatty acids and
can also use the glycerol fraction of lipids to form
glucose , this process is called as LIPOGENESIS.
These many chemical transformations are facilitated
by enzymes that are specific for each reaction and that
are under the influence of hormones secreted by the
pancreas and adrenal, pituitary, and thyroid glands.
 Regulation of blood sugar level
The liver is the only organ able to supply glucose to circulation .
 A blood sugar concentration in excess of normal levels is known
as HYPERGLYCEMIA
A blood glucose concentration below normal levels is known as
HYPOGLYCEMIA
Glucose is made available to the circulation by –
1.The absorbed sugars from the diet,
2. glycogenolysis
3. gluconeogenosis, and
4. to a lesser extent, the reconversion of pyruvic and lactic
acids formed in the glycolytic pathway.
Several hormones bring about an increased supply of glucose to
the blood . Thyroid hormone increases the rate of absorption
from the gastrointestinal tract.
GLUCAGON , a hormone secreted by the cells of the
pancreas, is believed to activate phosphorylase, thus
initiating glycogenolysis.
EPINEPHRINE, produced by the adrenal gland under
conditions of stress, increases the rate of glycogen
breakdown.
STEROID hormones accelerate the catabolism of
proteins, thus bringing about GLUCONEOGENOSIS .
Adrenocorticotropic hormone is antagonistic to the
action of insulin and thus prevents the blood sugar
level from dropping.
 Removal of glucose from blood
INSULIN –only one hormone is known to lower the
blood sugar. An increase in the concentration of blood
glucose stimulates the release of INSULIN , the
hormone produced by the beta cells of the islands of
langerhans .
Insulin lowers the blood glucose by several actions –
1. facilitation of the synthesis of glycogen in the liver
(glycogenesis)
2. the active transport of glucose across cell membranes
3. the conversion of glucose to fatty acids (lipogenesis).
The dietary sources of carbohydrate
Pure sugars
Syrups
Jellies
Jams
Cereal foods
 flours
Fruits and vegetables such as spinach, cabbage, other
leafy vegetables and melons
Potatoes, sweet potatoes, lima beans, corn, and
bananas
Dried beans and peas and dried fruits
(Lipids)Fats
Fats are the most concentrated storage form of basic
fuel for the human energy system.
They include substances such as fat, oil and related
compounds that are greasy to the touch and insoluble
in water. Substances of this class are called LIPIDS .
Some basic food fuel forms of fat are easily seen as fat :
butter, margarine, oil, salad dressing , cream. Other
food forms of fat are more hidden : egg yolk, meat fat,
olives, nuts , seeds.
Many human beings eat a relatively large amounts of
fat, about 45 % or more of the total kilocalories in
their diet.
We need fat in our food and in our bodies to keep us
healthy.
Fats/lipids are composed of fatty acids and glycerol.
Like carbohydrates, fats are organic compounds of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen , but fats have very less
proportion of oxygen than do carbohydrate.
Classification of fats
Simple lipids –
A. fatty acids
B. natural fats – mono- , di-, tri glycerides (esters of
fatty acids and glycerols).
C. waxes- esters of fatty acids with high molecular
weight(alcohols), sterol esters, non sterol esters.
Compound lipids – are esters of glycerols and fatty
acids, with substitution of other components such as
carbohydrate,phosphate, and/ or nitrogenous
groupings.
Phospholipids such as lecithin and cephalin contain
a phosphate and nitrogen grouping replacing one of
the fatty acids in the molecule.
Glycolipids such as the cerebrosides contain a
molecule of glucose or galactose.
Lipoproteins include a variety of lipid molecules
bound to protein molecules in order to facilitate
transport in the aqueous medium of the blood.
Derived lipids –
A. Fatty acids – mono and di glycerides
B. Glycerol
C. Sterol – cholesterol, steroid hormones, vitamin D ,
bile salts
D. Fat soluble vitamin A, D, E, K.
Functions of fat
Energy –to supply an efficient fuel to all tissues except the
central nervous system and brain, which depend on glucose.
Thermal insulation – The layer of fat directly underneath
the skin controls body temperature within the range
necessary for life.
Vital organ protection – A web-like padding of adipose fat
surrounds vital organs such as the kidneys, protecting them
from mechanical shock and providing a supporting
structure.
Nerve impulse transmission – Fat layers surrounding
nerve fibers provide electrical insulation and transmit nerve
impulses.
Tissue membrane structure – Fat serves as a vital
constituent of the cell membrane structure, helping
transport nutrient material and metabolites across cell
membranes.
Cell metabolism - Combinations of fat and protein,
lipoproteins carry fat in the blood to all cells.
Essential precursor substances - fat supplies necessary
components such as fatty acids and cholesterol for
synthesis of many materials required for metabolic
functions and tissue integrity.
Health problems with fat
Specifically, health problem with fat focus on two main
issues:
Amount of fat – Too much fat in the diet provides excessive
kilocalories, more than required for immediate energy needs.
The excess is stored as increasing adipose tissue and body
weight. This increased body weight has been associated with
health problems such as diabetes, hypertension, and heart
disease.
Kind of fat – An excess of saturated fat and cholesterol in
diet, which comes from animal sources, has been clearly
related by current research to ATHEROSCLEROSIS, the
underlying blood vessel disease characterized by fatty
plaques on interior vessel walls that can eventually fill the
vessel and cut off blood circulation at that point. This disease
process contributes to heart attacks and strokes.…
Fatty acids
The main constituents of all lipids are fatty acids .
They consists of chains of carbon atoms with methyl(CH3)
group at one end and a carboxyl (COOH) group at the
other end.
Most fatty acids in foods and in the body are straight, even-
numbered carbon chains, which contains as few as four or
as many as 24 carbon atoms.
Short-chain fatty acids contain 4 and 6 carbon atoms,
Medium-chain fatty acids contain 8 to 12 carbon atoms
Long-chain fatty acids contain more than 12 carbon atoms.
Saturation of fatty acids
Fatty acids are saturated or unsaturated.
Saturated fats are harder, less saturated ones are
softer, and are usually liquid oils. This differing state
results from the ratio of hydrogen to carbon in the
structures of the respective fatty acids that make up
particular fat.
 The fatty acid is said to be completely saturated with
amount of hydrogen in it. If the fatty acid has less
hydrogen it is obviously less saturated.
Degree of saturation of fatty acids

Saturated – A fatty acid in which each of the carbon

atoms in the chain has 2 hydrogen atoms attached to it,
is saturated . These fats are of animal origin.

Unsaturated – An unsaturated fatty acid is one in

which a hydrogen atom is missing from each of 2
adjoining carbon atoms.
Monounsaturated – fatty acids has one double bond.
These fats are mostly from plant sources, for example, olive
oil

Polyunsaturated fatty acids – contains 2 or more double

bonds, linoleic, linolenic, and archidonic acids are
nutritionally important examples of this group. Food fats
composed mainly of unsaturated fatty acids. These fats are
from plant sources.
Essential fatty acids
The term ESSENTIAL and NONESSENTIAL is applied
to a nutrient according to its relative necessary in the
diet. The nutrient is essential, if its absence creates a
specific disease and the body cannot manufacture it,
so must obtain it from the diet.
If fat makes up only 10% or less of the diet’s daily
kilocalories, the body cannot obtain adequate
amounts of the essential fatty acids . Three fatty acids
– linoleic, linolenic , archidonic – are the only ones
known to be essential for the complete nutrition of
humans.
Functions of essential fatty acids
Membrane structure – linoleic acid strengthens cell
membranes. Prevent a damaging increase in skin and
membrane permeability. A linoleic acid deficiency leads to a
breakdown in skin integrity, resulting in characteristic
eczema and skin lesions. A similar effect also occurs in other
tissue membranes throughout the body.
Cholesterol transport –linoleic acid combines with
cholesterol to form cholesterol esters for transport in the
blood.
Serum cholesterol – lenoleic acid helps lower serum
cholesterol levels. It plays a key role in both transport and
metabolism of cholesterol.
Blood clotting – lenoleic acid associated with its
metabolic products archidonic acid and linolenic acid
helps prolong blood clotting time and increase
fibrinolytic activity.

Local hormone-like activity – lenoleic acid is a

major metabolic precursor of a group of
physiologically and pharmacologically active
compounds known as prostacyclins, prostaglandins,
thromboxanes, and leukotrines.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is often discussed in connection with
dietary fat, it is a sterol .
Generally, cholesterol travel in the blood stream
attached to long chain fatty acids, forming cholesterol
esters.
The concentration of cholesterol is high in the liver,
the adrenal, the white and gray matter of the brain,
and the peripheral nerves.
It is present in small amounts in almost all body
tissues and constitutes an important fraction of the
blood lipoproteins.
It is synthesized by the liver to meet body needs regardless
of dietary intake.
Cholesterol is a component of cell membranes and
furnishes the nucleus for the synthesis of provitamin D,
adrenocortical hormones, steroid sex hormones, and bile
salts.
Abnormal deposits of cholesterol in the tissues are
associated with several conditions, including
atherosclerosis, hypertension and diabetes.
Cholesterol is broken down in to bile acids and
delivered to small intestine.
Dietary sources are in large amounts in -egg yolk,
liver, kidney, sweetbread, brains. In small amounts in –
fat of meat, whole milk, cream, ice-cream, cheese and
butter.
No cholesterol foods – fruits, vegetables, cereals,
breadstuffs, syrups, egg whites, low fat fish, soups
without fat.
Exogenous cholesterol – 1 egg > 275mg of cholesterol,
100 gm meat > 100mg of cholesterol,
100 ml whole milk > 50 mg of cholesterol ,
2 tablespoons butter > 75 mg of cholesterol.
Health concerns about cholesterol
In the development of atherosclerosis , cholesterol has been
strongly implicated as a large risk factor. The underlying
pathology in coronary heart disease, in which cholesterol-
containing fatty plaques build up in blood vessel walls; so
there is an elevation of serum cholesterol levels.
 Now a days there is a necessity of educating people to
reduce their dietary cholesterol intake to about 250 mg /day.
To improve food habits and adding drug therapy as needed.
An increase in soluble type of dietary fiber is also
recommended because these fibers bind bile acids and
dietary cholesterol, helping to eliminate excess cholesterol
from the body.
 Lipoproteins
The lipoproteins are important combinations of fat with
proteins. They serve as the major vehicle for fat transport
in the blood stream.
The high and low density of the lipoprotein is
determined by its relative load of fat and protein. The
higher the protein ratio , the higher the density.
Chylo microns – formed in the intestinal wall following
a meal and carrying a high ratio of fat(90%) with a small
amount of protein, have the low density.
Very low-density lipoproteins(VLDL)- deliver
endogenous triglycerides to tissue cells. It contains high
proportions of triglycerides and a small amounts of protein.
So required concentration in the body should be low.
Intermediate low-density lipoproteins(ILDL)- continue
the delivery of endogenous triglycerides to tissue cells.
Low-density lipoproteins(LDL)- deliver cholesterol to the
peripheral tissue cells. They are the chief carrier of
cholesterol ; called as bad cholesterol.
High-density lipoproteins(HDL)- transfer free cholesterol
from tissues to the liver for catabolism and excretion. It
consists of 50% protein and 20% cholesterol. This group has
been found to have a protective effect; that is, it reduces the
risk of coronary heart disease. It is a good cholesterol.
Metabolism and storage of Fats
Almost all the lipids of the diet are absorbed into the
lymph from the intestinal mucosa.
In the liver lipids may be metabolized or converted to
alpha- and beta-lipoproteins in which form they are
carried in the blood to the tissues for immediate use for
energy or special functions or to the adipose tissue for
storage.
The principal stores of body fat are found in
1. subcutaneous tissue- 50%
2. abdominal cavity, around the intestinal organs – 45%

3. intramuscular tissue- 5%.

The fat present in adipose tissue appears mostly as

triglyceride. In the fat cells are modified fibroblasts
which store up to 95% of their volume as triglycerides
in liquid form.
The liver is a major center of lipid metabolism and is
largely responsible for regulation of lipid levels in the
body.
Its important functions are-
1. synthesis of triglycerides from carbohydrates and, to
smaller extent, from proteins.
2. synthesis of other lipids such as phospholipids and
cholesterol from triglycerides, and
3. desaturation of fatty acids(oleic acid is the
predominant acid in human adipose tissue).
A primary function of liver is degradation of
triglycerides for use as energy .
Hormonal control of fat metabolism
The hormones secreted by the endocrine glands which have marked
effects on carbohydrate metabolism also affect fat metabolism, they are
 Insulin – which in insufficient amount deceases fat synthesis and
increases fat mobilization and utilization . Excessive insulin inhibits
fat utilization and increases fat synthesis.
 Thyroxin – which increases mobilization of fats caused indirectly by
the increased rate of energy metabolism regulated by this hormone.
 Glucocorticoids – which increase the rate of fat mobilization. Lack of
or absence of glucocorticoids depresses fat mobilization and
utilization.
 Adrinocorticoids(growth hormone) – which increase fat
mobilization
 Epinephrine - which increases the rate of fat mobilization by
releasing free fatty acids from fat cells for metabolism.
“You need what you need, but you
don’t need more than you need”
Less is harmful, more is also harmful what you require
is optimum.
Proteins
Proteins are the key components of all living organisms.
Proteins are fundamental structural compounds of the
cells, antibodies, enzymes, and many of the hormones.
They are essential constituents of the nucleus and
protoplasm of every cell. Most of the protein found in
muscle tissues, bones, teeth, blood, and other body fluids.
Proteins like fats and carbohydrates , contain carbon,
hydrogen & oxygen, but in addition they also contain
nitrogen 16%; along with sulfur and some phosphorus,
iron and cobalt.
The structural units of protein are amino acid. There are
23 amino acids.
Classification of proteins
Proteins may be classified in a number of ways including
physical and chemical properties, physical shape, and
nutritional properties.
PHYSICAL- CHEMICAL PROPERTIES-
Simple proteins – are those which yield only amino acids
upon hydrolysis. Examples-
Albumins – soluble in water, coagulated by heat.
Globulins - are insoluble in water, soluble in dilute salt
solution, coagulated by heat; found within all body cells
and in the blood serum.
 Keratin - collagen, and elastin - in supportive tissues of
the body and in hair and nails.
Globin - in hemoglobin and myoglobin; and lactalbumin
and lactoglobulin - in milk.
Conjugated proteins – are composed of simple proteins and
some other non protein substance, called the prosthetic
group, attached to the molecule.
This group includes lipoprotein - compounds of a protein
and a triglyceride or other lipid such as phospholipids or
cholesterol found in cell and organelle membrane. It is the
vehicles for the transport of fats in the blood.
Nucleoproteins - are the combinations of simple proteins and
nucleic acid. Deoxyribose nucleoproteins are the principal
constituents of the genes, and ribose nucleoproteins are
necessary for the synthesis of proteins in cytoplasm.
Phosphoproteins - such as casein in milk and ovovitellin in
egg. These proteins are joined in ester linkage with phosphoric
acid.
Metalloproteins - are compounds of metals(copper,
magnesium, zinc, iron) attached to protein found in
ferritin, hemosiderin, transferrin . It is found in connective
tissues, mucin, and gonado tropic hormones
Chromoproteins - these are compound proteins and a
non-protein pigment found in flavoproteins and
hemoglobin and visual purple; which are enzymes that
contain the vitamin riboflavin.

Derived proteins - are products formed in the various

stages of hydrolysis of the protein molecule. For example,
proteoses are formed early in the hydrolysis process while
peptones, polypeptides and peptides are products that
form near the final stages of protein breakdown.
PHYSICAL SHAPE
Fibrous proteins – consists of long polypeptide chains
- linear shape.
- generally insoluble in body fluids
- give strength to tissue in which they appear.
- E.g. Keratin in hair and nails, collagen in tendons and
bone matrices, and elastin in the blood vessel walls
Globular proteins - are chains of amino acids
- coiled and tightly packed together in a round or
ellipsoidal shape.
- generally soluble in body fluids
- E,g. hemoglobin, insulin, enzymes, albumin, and
others.
 NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES
Essential amino acids - are those cannot be synthesized
in the body at a rate sufficient to meet body needs; which
must be supplied in the food.
Human being requires nine essential amino acids.
Mithionine, phenyalalanine, valine, lysine,
threonine,leucine, isoleucine, and tryptophan. Arginine and
histidine are required by children in their growth periods.
Methionine can be converted to cystine, but cystine cannot
be converted to Methionine. Likewise, phenylalanine can be
converted to tyrosine, but tyrosine cannot be converted to
phenylalanine.
Nonessential amino acids – are those that the body can
synthesize from available source of nitrogen and a carbon
skeleton . Typical mixed diets contain ample amounts of
BASED UPON CONTENT OF AMINO ACIDS
Complete protein – contains enough of the essential
amino acids to maintain body tissues and to promote a
normal rate of growth and is sometimes refferred to as
having a HIGH BIOLOGIC VALUE .
E.g. Eggs , milk, and meat, poultry and fish proteins
are all complete.

Partially complete proteins – will maintain life, but

they lack sufficient amounts of some amino acids
necessary for growth. Gliadin is one of a number of
proteins found in wheat ,is a notable example of
proteins of this class.
Functions of proteins
The main functions of proteins are-
MAINTENANCE and GROWTH – proteins constitute
the chief solid matter of muscles, organs, and endocrine
glands.
They are major constituents of the matrix of bones and
teeth; skin, nails, and hair; and blood cells and serum.
Every living cell and all body fluids, except bile and
urine, contain protein.
The first need for amino acids, is to supply the materials
for the building and the continuous replacement of the
cell proteins throughout life.
REGULATION of BODY PROCESSES – body proteins have
highly specialized functions in the regulation of body
processes. Some of these are as follows:
Nucleoproteins contains a blueprint for the synthesis of all
body proteins.
Cytoplasmic proteins, that is, the enzymes, appear
thousands in number to facilitate each step of digestion,
absorption, anabolism, and catabolism.
Hormonal proteins release or set the brakes that control
metabolic processes.
Immune proteins maintain the body’s resistance to
disease.
Contractile proteins (myosin, actin ) regulate muscle
contraction.
Blood proteins include a wide variety of functions such as
The transport proteins provide ferry nutrients to the
tissues; for example, hemoglobin, transferrin(iron
transport), retinol-binding protein(vitamin A) , and
others.
Hemoglobin is involved not only in the transport of
oxygen and carbondioxide but contributes to acid-base
balance.
The serum proteins, especially serum albumin, are of
fundamental importance in the regulation of osmotic
pressure and in the maintenance of fluid balance.
Individual amino acids also have specific functions in
metabolism.
Tryptophan serves as a precursor for niacin and also
for serotonin, a vasoconstrictor.
Glycine contributes to the formation of the porphyrin
ring in the hemoglobin molecule and is also an
important of the purines and pyrimidines in nucleic
acid.
ENERGY – proteins are potential source of energy, 1
gram of protein yields 4 kcal.
If the diet does not furnish sufficient calories from
carbohydrate and fat, the proteins of the diet as well as
tissue proteins will be catabolized for energy.
When amino acids are used for energy , they are then
lost for synthesis purposes.
Effect of heat and cooking on proteins
Denaturation - Proteolytic enzymes not only bring
about the splitting of the peptide linkages but they
also split the crosslinks that connect the peptide
chains.
During moderate heating of proteins some of the
cross-linkages are split, there by facilitating digestion.
Excessive heating results in the formation of linkage
that are resistant to the digestive enzymes.
Browning reaction - as a result of high, usually
prolonged heat this browning reaction occurs.
Some breakfast cereals processed at high temperatures
are subject to such losses.
These changes assume some importance when the
diet supplies limited amounts of low-quality proteins.
Effect of enzyme inhibitors - some foods such as
navy beans and soyabeans contain substances that
inhibit the activity of enzymes such as trypsin.
Heating inactivates these inhibitors, there by
improving the digestibility of the proteins.
Absorption of proteins
Amino acids are absorbed from the proximal intestine
into the portal circulation.
The rate of absorption are regulated by complex
mechanisms not fully understood. These rates are
dependent upon-
1. the total load of amino acids released through
digestion
2. the proportions of the various amino acids present in
the mixture to be absorbed.
3. the up take of aminoacids by tissues.
Recommended protein allowance
The daily recommended allowances (RDA) for the 70 kg
reference man and 58 kg reference woman is
approximately 0.9 gm. /kg of body weight/ day
respectively.
For infants the protein allowances are greater, that is,
2.2 gm during first 6 months and 2.0 gm up to one year
of age/ kg of body weight/ day.
From 1 year to 10 years the required allowances are 1.8 to
1.2 gm / kg of body weight/ day.
An additional 30 gm / kg of body weight/ day during
pregnancy ; that is 55+30 = 85 gm
 during lactation increased 20 gm of protein / gm of
body weight / day; that is, 55+20 =75 gm.
Factors affecting the protein requirement
Sufficient protein for adults is needed to cover daily
nitrogen losses in the urine, feces , desquamated skin,
hair, nails, perspiration, and other secretions.
Essential amino acids must be present in sufficient
amounts to meet needs for tissue generation.
Sufficient calories must be furnished to meet energy
needs so that protein is not preferentially used for energy
. Thus, carbohydrate and fats can spare proteins for its
synthesis function.
Growth needs of infants and children increase the
protein requirements per kilogram of body weight.
A poor state of nutrition necessitates additional protein for
repletion.
Infections, immobilization, surgery, burns, and other
injuries increases protein catabolism and hence the protein
requirement.
Emotional stress increases protein catabolism.
Diseases of mal absorption can seriously interfere with
digestion and absorption, thus increasing the amount of
protein needed or the manner of its feeding or both.
Development of maternal tissues and the fetus during
pregnancy increases the protein need.
Milk production by the mother increases the protein need.
Food sources of protein
The protein concentration is high in dry milk, meat,
poultry, fish, cheese, and nuts.
The intermediate concentration in eggs, legumes,
flours, cereals, and liquid milk.
The low concentration of proteins in most fruits and
vegetables.
Reference books
Normal and Therapeutic Nutrition –
by – corinne H. Robinson, Marilyn R. Lawler
16th edition
Essentials of Nutrition and Diet Therapy –
by – Sue Rodwell Williams 5th edition
Food Nutrition and Diet Therapy -
by - KRAUSE and HUNSCHER 5th edition
Thank you