SOLUTION CHEMISTRY

I. MIXTURES:
1) mixture = a blend of two or more
kinds of matter, each of which retains
its own identity and properties
• can be physically separated
(filtration, evaporation, decanting,
magnetism, etc)
 I. MIXTURES:
a.) homogeneous mixture = a
mixture that is uniform in
composition throughout
•Ex: Food coloring and water
b.) heterogeneous mixture = a
mixture that is NOT uniform in
composition throughout
•Ex: Oil and water
 A. Types of Mixtures:

1) solution = a homogeneous mixture

 A. Types of Mixtures:

2) suspension = a mixture in which the

particles are so large that they settle out
unless the mixture is constantly stirred or
agitated
• Heterogeneous mixture
• Ex: Sand and water
 A. Types of Mixtures:
3) colloid = a mixture consisting of particles
that are intermediate in size between those
in solutions and those in suspensions
• Heterogeneous Mixture
• Ex:
Milk, mayonnaise, smog, butter,
whipped cream
 3) Colloids

a) What property of a colloid helps to

prevent colloid particles from settling
out of a mixture?
• Brownian motion = the random
continuous motions of colloidal
particles
 3) Colloids
b) Tyndall effect = visible
pattern caused by the
reflection of light from
suspended particles in a
colloid (or from suspended
particles in a suspension if
the particles have not
settled out)
 Ex: visibility of a headlight beam
on a foggy night
 B. Comparison of solution, colloids, and
suspensions
Solutions Colloids Suspensions

Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous

Particle size: 1- Particle size:

Particle size:
1000 nm, over 1000 nm,
0.01-1 nm; can
dispersed; can suspended; can
be atoms,
be aggregates be large
ions,
or large particles or
molecules
molecules aggregates
B. Properties of solution, colloids, and suspensions

Solutions Colloids Suspensions

Do not separate Do not separate Particles settle
on standing on standing out
Cannot be Cannot be
Can be separated
separated by separated by
by filtration
filtration filtration

May scatter
Do not scatter Scatter light
light, but are not
light (Tyndall effect)
transparent
 C. Determining if a mixture is a true
solution, a colloid, or a suspension:
1.) If particles settle or can be filtered out =
suspension
2.) If particles DO NOT settle or filter out shine
a beam of light (Tyndall effect) through the
mixture
• If the Tyndall effect is observed = colloid
• If
the Tyndall effect is NOT observed =
solution
 o f
u r e
a t s
I I . N i o n
l u t
S o
 II. THE NATURE OF SOLUTIONS:
1) Solvent = the substance that
does the dissolving in a solution
a) Typically present in the
greatest amount
b) Typically a liquid
c) Water is the most common
or “universal” solvent
•B/c water molecules are polar
• The hydrogen side of each water (H2O) molecule
carries a slight positive electric charge, while the
oxygen side carries a slight negative electric charge.
• water can dissociate ionic compounds into their
positive and negative ions.
• The positive part of an ionic compound is attracted
to the oxygen side of water while the negative
portion of the compound is attracted to the
hydrogen side of water.
• Water won't dissolve or won't dissolve
well. If the attraction is high between the
opposite-charged ions in a compound,
then the solubility will be low.
•Ex:
hydroxides exhibit low solubility in
water.
•Ex:
nonpolar molecules don't dissolve
very well in water (fats and waxes)
 II. THE NATURE OF SOLUTIONS:

2) Solute = substance being dissolved in a

solution
a) Typically present in the least amount
b) Typically a solid
A. 9 Possible Solutions Combinations:
Solvent Solute Common Example
Gas Gas Diver’s tank
oNOT all solutions
Gas Liquid Humidity are liquids/solids!
Gas Solid Moth ball oSolutions are
Liquid Gas Carbonation formed in ALL 3
states!
Liquid Liquid Vinegar
Liquid Solid Seawater
Solid Gas Gas stove lighter

Solid Liquid Dental fillings

Solid Solid Sterling Silver (Ag + Cu)
 B. Solvation

1.) Solvation = the process of dissolving

a.) First- solute particles are surrounded

by solvent particles

b.) Then- solute particles are separated

and pulled into solution

C. Johannesson
 B. Solvation
2.) Dissociation = separation of an ionic solid
into aqueous ions
• Ex:
NaCl + H2O – the Na ion and Cl ion
become hydrated and gradually move
away from the crystal into solution.
• Eachion in the solution acts as though it
were present alone: So there is only a
solution containing Na+ and Cl- ions
uniformly mixed with H2O particles
• NaCl(s)  Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
Animation of Salt Dissolving:
http://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/Biology1111/animations/dissolve.html
 B. Solvation
3.) Ionization = breaking apart of some
polar molecules into aqueous ions
•Ex: HNO3(aq) + H2O(l)  H3O+(aq) + NO3–(aq)
 B. Solvation
4.) Molecular Solvation =molecules stay
intact
•Ex: C6H12O6(s)  C6H12O6(aq)
 C. Factors Affecting the Rate of
Dissolving (Increases Solution Rate):
1) Grinding: increases surface area
exposed to solvent

2) Stirring: allows solvent continual

contact with solute

3) Heating: increases kinetic

energy; increases mixing
C. Factors Affecting the Rate of Dissolving
(Increase Solution Rate):
 e s &
l y t s
c t ro y te
E l e ro l
I . c t
II n e l e
N o
 Many
p eo p l
me as e kno
“el e c conta w
t ro l y ining
just m tes”…
eans that
I c on
disso tain
disso lved,
ciate
d ion
s!
 A. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
1) electrolyte = a substance that dissolves
in water to give a solution that conducts
electric current
2) nonelectrolyte = a substance that
dissolves in water to give a solution that
does NOT conduct an electric current
 A. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
3) Solutions of electrolytes can conduct
electric current:
a) The positive ions and the negative ions
disassociate (separate) in solution. The
mobile ions can move a charge from one
point in the solution to another point
 A. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
4) Solutions of nonelectrolytes CANNOT
conduct electric current:
a) When a nonelectrolyte dissolves in water
there are NO charged particles in
solution.
b) Ex: Solute exists as molecules
 A. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
5) Weak Electrolytes
a) Only a portion of dissolved molecules
ionize
 A. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
6) Solid ionic compounds CANNOT conduct
electric current:
a) Ions are present but they are NOT
mobile.
 A. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes

- + - + - +

sugar acetic acid salt

Non- Weak Strong

Electrolyte Electrolyte Electrolyte
solute exists as solute exists as solute exists as
molecules ions and ions only
only molecules
 IV .
ili ty
ol u b
S
 A. SOLUBILITY:
1) Solubility = quantity of solute that will
dissolve in specific amount of solvent at a
certain temperature. (pressure must also be
specified for gases).
a) Ex: 204 g of sugar will dissolve in 100 g
of water at 20C
b) soluble and insoluble are relative terms
c) solubility should NOT be confused with
the rate at which a substance dissolves
 A. SOLUBILITY:
2) saturated solution = a stable solution in
which the maximum amount of solute has
been dissolved.
a) Visual evidence: a quantity of
undissolved solute remains in contact
with the solution
 A. SOLUBILITY:
3) solubility equilibrium = state where the
solute is dissolving at the same rate that the
solute is coming out of solution (crystallizing).
a) Opposing processes of the dissolving and
crystallizing of a solute occur at equal
rates.
b) solute + solvent solution
 A. SOLUBILITY:
4) unsaturated solution = a solution that
contains less solute than a saturated solution
under existing conditions
 A. SOLUBILITY:
5) supersaturated solution = a solution that
temporarily contains more than the saturation
amount of solute than the solvent can hold
• Unstable – if disturbed, the excess solute
will crystallize out of solution
 A. Solubility

UNSATURATED SATURATED SUPERSATURATED

SOLUTION SOLUTION SOLUTION
more solute no more solute becomes unstable,
dissolves dissolves crystals form

concentration
 B. 3 FACTORS EFFECTING SOLUBILITY:
1) Nature of solute and solvent
a) “Like dissolves like” = rule of thumb for predicting
whether or not one substance dissolves in another
“Alikeness” depends on:
•Intermolecular forces
•Type of bonding
•Polarity or nonpolarity of molecules:
•ionicsolutes tend to dissolve in polar
solvents but not in nonpolar solvents
B. 3 FACTORS EFFECTING SOLUBILITY:
b.) Solvent-Solute Combinations:

Solvent Type Solute Type Is Solution

Likely?
Polar Polar
YES
Polar Nonpolar “Like Dissolves
NO Like”

Nonpolar Polar NO

Nonpolar Nonpolar
YES
B. 3 FACTORS EFFECTING SOLUBILITY:

2) Pressure:
a) Pressure has little effect on the
solubility of liquids or solids in liquid
solvents.
b) The solubility of a gas in a liquid
solvent INCREASES when pressure
increases. It is a direct relationship.
 B. 3 FACTORS EFFECTING SOLUBILITY:
3) Temperature:
a) The solubility of a gas in a liquid solvent
DECREASES with an increase in
temperature.
b) The solubility of a solid in a liquid solvent
MOST OFTEN increases with an increase in
temperature. However, solubility changes
vary widely with temperature changes
sometimes decreasing with temperature
increases.
 lit y
bi
ol u
. S p h
V Gra
 A. SOLUBILITY CURVE:
1) Saturated = any point on the line or
ABOVE the line

2) Unsaturated = any point BELOW the line

1. What is the
solubility of the
following solutes in
water?
38g
a) NaCl at 60ºC=

39g
b) KCl at 40ºC=

c) KNO3 at 20ºC= 31g

2. Are the following solutions
saturated or unsaturated?
Each solution contains 100 g
of H20.

a) 31.2 g of KCl at 30ºC =

Unsaturated
b) 106g KNO3 at 60ºC=

Saturated
(on the line)
2. Are the following solutions
saturated or unsaturated? Each
solution contains 100 g of H20.

c)40 g NaCl at 10ºC=

Saturated

d)150g KNO3 at 90ºC =

Unsaturated
3. For each of the following
solutions, explain how much of the
solute will dissolve and how much
will remain undissolved at the
bottom of the test tube?

a) 180 g of KNO3 in
100 g of water at
80ºC

169g dissolved
11g undissolved
3. For each of the following
solutions, explain how much of the
solute will dissolve and how much
will remain undissolved at the
bottom of the test tube?

b) 180 g of KNO3 in
100 g of water at
20ºC
31g dissolved
149g undissolved
3. For each of the following
solutions, explain how much of the
solute will dissolve and how much
will remain undissolved at the
bottom of the test tube?

C) 60 g of NaCl in
100 g of water at
60ºC
39g dissolved

21g undissolved
4. Asaturated solution of
KNO3 is formed from one
hundred grams of water. If
the saturated solution is
cooled from 90°C to 30°C,
how many grams of
precipitate are formed?

(200g-45g) = 155g
5. Asaturated solution of KCl is
formed from one hundred
grams of water. If the saturated
solution is cooled from 90°C to
40°C, how many grams of
precipitate are formed?

(53g-39g) = 14g
 n :
t io
t r a
c e n &
on it y
I . C la r
V Mo ality
o l
M
 A. Concentration
1.) Concentration = The amount of solute in a
solution.

a.) Describing Concentration:

• % by mass - medicated creams
• % by volume - rubbing alcohol
• ppm, ppb - water contaminants
• molarity - used by chemists
• molality - used by chemists
 A. Molarity
1.) Molarity = unit of concentration of a solution.
•Formula:
substance being dissolved

moles of solute
Molarity (M) 
liters of solution

total combined volume

 A. Molarity

2M HCl What does this mean?

mol
M
L

2 mol HCl
2M HCl 
1L
 B. Molarity Calculations
1) To solve for Molarity when given grams of solute,
you will use gram/mole conversion and the equation
for Molarity. Use the following steps:
a) Change grams of solute to moles. To do this you
need to use the following conversion:
Grams of solute 1 mole of solute =moles of solute
Molar mass of solute*

*make sure formulas are correct; Use ion list!

 B. Molarity Calculations
b) Change the volume of solution to liters (L)
by moving the decimal 3 places to the LEFT.
• Remember that 1000 mL = 1 L. Water will
most often be the solvent in a solution.
c) Substitute the information into the molarity
equation and solve.

moles of solute
Molarity (M) 
liters of solution
2) Ex: What is the molarity of a solution composed of 22.4g
of sodium chloride dissolved in enough water to make 500
mL of solution?

22.4 g of NaCl 1 mole NaCl =0.383 moles NaCl

58.443 g NaCl

0.383 mole NaCl = 0.766 M NaCl

0.500 L soln Note: You need to
change mL of solution
to L. So move decimal
3 places to the left!
 B. Molarity Calculations

Use the Molarity equation to solve for grams

of solute. You will need to solve the Molarity
equation for moles of solute. Then convert
moles of solute to grams of solute.

mol
M
L
Ex: How many grams of lithium bromide are present
in 300mL of a 0.4M lithium bromide solution?

a) Substitute the information and solve for

moles by cross multiplying or multiplying by
the reciprocal:
“X” moles LiBr___ = 0.4M LiBr
mol 0.300 L solution
M
L

X = 0.12 moles of LiBr are needed

Ex: How many grams of lithium bromide are present
in 300mL of a 0.4M lithium bromide solution?
b) Convert moles to grams using the following conversion:
Moles of solute molar mass of solute = grams of solute
1 mole of solute

• The substitution would look like:

0.12 moles LiBr 86.845 g LiBr = 10. g LiBr

1 mol LiBr
 C. Dilution Calculations
1.) Sometimes solutions of lower concentrations
are made from existing solutions.
2.) Moles of solute remain the same.
3.) Formula: M1V1 = M2V2
• M1 is the original molarity concentration
• V1 is the volume of the original solution (in
L)
• M2 is the new concentration
• V2 is the amount of the new solution
 C. Dilution Calculations
Ex 1: What volume of 15.8M HNO3 is required to make 250
mL of a 6.0M solution?
M 1V1  M 2V2
GIVEN: WORK:
M1 = 15.8M M1 V1 = M2 V2
V1 = ? (15.8M) V1 = (6.0M)(250mL)
M2 = 6.0M
V2 = 250 mL V1 = 95 mL of 15.8M HNO3
 D. Molality

1.) Molality (m) = a unit of

concentration of a solution expressed in
moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
a) Ex: A solution that contains 1 mol of
solute, ammonia (NH3), dissolved in exactly
1 kg solvent, is a “one molal” solution.
 D. Molality
b) Formula:
moles of solute
molality (m) 
kg of solvent

mass of solvent only

c) Note: 1 kg water = 1 L water

 E. Calculations: Solving for Molality
1) If needed convert:
• grams of solute moles of solute
• grams of solvent kg of solvent
(move decimal 3 places to the left!)

2) Solve for molality m = moles of solute

kg of solvent
3) Ex: Find the molality of a solution containing 75
g of MgCl2 in 250 mL of water.
mol
m
kg
75 g MgCl2 1 mol MgCl2
= 0.79 mol
95.211 g MgCl2 MgCl2

0.79 mol MgCl2

= 3.2m MgCl2
0.250 kg water
F. Calculations: Using the Molality equation to
solve for grams of solute:

1) Use Molality equation and solve for

moles
2) Then convert moles of solute to grams of
solute
mol
m
kg
Ex: How many grams of NaCl are required to
make a 1.54m solution using 0.500 kg of water?

“X” moles NaCl___ = 1.54m NaCl

0.500 kg H2O
X = 0.770 moles NaCl

0.770 mol NaCl 58.443 g NaCl = 45.0 g NaCl

1 mol NaCl
VII. Colligative
Properties
 A. Colligative Property

1.) Colligative property = A property

that depends on the NUMBER of

solute particles rather than the type of
particle.

C. Johannesson
 B. Examples of colligative properties:

1.) Vapor Pressure LOWERING of a

solution
a) Ex: We have two beakers. One contains
H2O, the other contains a salt solution
(NaCl) in H2O. Both beakers are placed
into a sealed chamber:
DAY 3: If we leave
it for a couple of
days and then come
back and take a
look, this is what it
DAY 1 might look like.
 B. Examples of colligative properties:
b) WHAT HAPPENED?:
•Na+ and Cl- ions are non-volatile ions. In other words, they will
not leave and go into the vapor phase.
•Those H2O molecules with enough kinetic energy will leave the
surface of the solutions and enter into the vapor phase.
•The fact that Na+ and Cl- ions are dissolved in H2O indicates
that there is an attractive interaction between the solutes and
the H2O.
DAY 3: If we leave it
for a couple of days
and then come back
and take a look, this
is what it might look
like.
DAY 1
 B. Examples of colligative properties:
•The interaction of the Na+ and Cl- ions for H2O will act
to hinder the ability of the solvated H2O molecules to
leave and go into the vapor phase (Na+ and Cl- ions
are non-volatile).
•Thishindrance of the H2O molecules to enter the
vapor phase will reduce the vapor pressure of the H2O
in the salt-containing solution.
DAY 3: If we leave it
for a couple of days
and then come back
and take a look, this
is what it might look
like.
DAY 1
 B. Examples of colligative properties:
•The two beakers are in the same sealed container, thus,
the vapor pressure above the solutions is identical.
•The rate of H2O entering the solutions by collisions from
the vapor state will be identical
•The rate of H2O leaving the liquid phase and entering
the vapor phase is slower for the NaCl-containing
solution
DAY 3: If we leave it
for a couple of days
and then come back
and take a look, this
is what it might look
like.
DAY 1
 B. Examples of colligative properties:
2.) Osmotic Pressure = If two solutions, with
different solute concentrations, are separated
by a semi-permeable membrane, there can be
a net flow of solvent across the membrane.
 B. Examples of colligative properties:
3.) Freezing Point depression= The solution
will begin to freeze at a temperature BELOW
that of the pure solvent.
 B. Examples of colligative properties:

4.) Boiling Point elevation = the solution will

begin to boil at a temperature ABOVE that of
the pure solvent.
C. How are solutions different than pure
liquids?
1.) One of the ways in which they are different,
is that when you add a solute to a liquid both
the freezing point and boiling point of the
solution CHANGE.
 C. How are solutions different than pure liquids?

a) Freezing point – In a solution, the solute

particles interfere with the attractive forces
among the solvent particles.
•This prevents the solvent from entering
the solid state at its normal freezing
point
 C. How are solutions different than pure liquids?
b) Boiling point- When the temperature of a solution
containing a nonvolatile solute is raised to the boiling point
of the pure solvent, the resulting vapor pressure is still less
than the atmospheric pressure and the solution will not boil.
• Thus, the solution must be heated to a higher
temperature to supply the additional KE needed to
raise the vapor pressure to atmospheric pressure.
C. How are solutions different than pure
liquids?
2) Water is the liquid we will be dealing with most
often
a) The freezing point of pure water is 0°C.
b) The normal boiling point of water is
100°C.
c) But if you make a solution using water as
the solvent, the freezing point of that
solution will NOT be 0°C nor will the
boiling point be 100°C!
 D. Freezing Point Depression & Boiling
Point Elevation:
1) Freezing point depression (TFP) –
solutions will freeze at LOWER
temperature than the pure solvent
a) The more solute dissolved, the
greater the effect.
 D. Freezing Point Depression & Boiling
Point Elevation:
b) Ex: ethylene glycol (antifreeze) protects
against freezing of the water in the cooling
system by lowering the freezing point to
about -40°C
 D. Freezing Point Depression & Boiling
Point Elevation:
c) Ex: making of homemade ice
cream- The ice cream mix is put
into a metal container which is
surrounded by crushed ice. Then
salt is put on the ice to lower its
melting point. This gives a
temperature gradient across the
metal container into the
saltwater-ice solution which is
lower than 0°C. The heat transfer
out of the ice cream mix allows it
to freeze.
 D. Freezing Point Depression & Boiling
Point Elevation:
2.) Boiling point elevation (TBP) – solutions
will boil at HIGHER temperatures than the pure
solvent
a) The boiling point of pure water is
100°C, but that boiling point can be
elevated by the addition of a solute such as
a salt.
b) The more solute dissolved, the greater
the effect.
 E. Calculating Freezing Point Depression
& Boiling Point Elevation:
1) Solution concentrations are given in
molality (m)
2) Colligative properties are directly
proportional to the molal concentration of a
solute
 E. Calculating Freezing Point Depression
& Boiling Point Elevation:
3)Account for particle molality for
ELECTROLYTES
• Ex: NaCl = 2 ions (Na+ & Cl-)
• Ex: MgCl2 = 3 ions (Mg+2 and 2 Cl-)

4) A change in the concentration (m),

changes the freezing point and boiling
point of a solution
E. Calculating Freezing Point Depression
& Boiling Point Elevation:
a) You will need to figure out the change in
temperature for the normal freezing point (FP) or
boiling point (BP) and adjust them with the
following steps:
∆T = mK
∆T = change in temperature
m = moles solute/kg solvent (MOLALITY)
K = constant
•You will mostly use the constants for
water: Kfp = 1.853 ˚C/m
Kbp = 0.515˚C/m
 E. Calculating Freezing Point Depression
& Boiling Point Elevation:
• Other values can be found below:
FREEZING Point Depression Constants BOILING Point Elevation Constants

Freezing K ( o
C/m) Boiling
Compound fp Compound Kbp(oC/m)
Point ( C)
o
Point (oC)
water 0 1.853 water 100 0.515
acetic acid 16.66 3.90 ethyl ether 34.55 1.824
benzene 5.53 5.12 carbon
46.23 2.35
disulfide
p-xylene 13.26 4.3
benzene 80.10 2.53
naphthalene 80.29 6.94 carbon
76.75 4.48
cyclohexane 6.54 20.0 tetrachloride
camphor 207.42 5.611
 E. Calculating Freezing Point Depression
& Boiling Point Elevation:
4.) Steps solving for ∆T:
a) Solve for molality (see steps from
previous problems)
m = moles of solute
kg of solvent

mol
m
kg
E. Calculating Freezing Point Depression
& Boiling Point Elevation:
b) Find your K constant from the chart
listed in your notes.
• Be sure to find the correct K constant
for what you are solving for-- either
FP or BP!!
c) Solve for ∆T ∆T = mK
 E. Calculating Freezing Point Depression
& Boiling Point Elevation:
d) If solving for:
• Freezing point: Take the normal freezing point
of the solvent and SUBTRACT the ∆T value
• Round final answer to 3 significant
figures!
• Boilingpoint: Take the normal boiling point of
the solvent and ADD the ∆T value
• Round final answer to 6 significant
figures!
 E. Calculating Boiling Point Elevation:
5.) At what temperature will a solution that is composed of 32.8 g of glucose (C6H12O6) in 225 g of
water boil?
32.8g C6H12O6 1 mol C6H12O6
= 0.182 mol
180.155g C6H12O6 C6H12O6
0.182 mol C6H12O6
m= = 0.809 m C6H12O6
0.225 kg water
TBP = mKbp
TBP = (0.809 m) (0.515 C/m) = 0.417C
BP = 100C + 0.417 C = 100.417C
 E. Calculating Freezing Point Depression:
6.) Find the freezing point of a saturated solution of NaCl containing 28 g NaCl in 115 g water.

28.0g NaCl 1 mol NaCl = 0.479 mol NaCl

58.443g NaCl

0.479 mol NaCl

m= = 4.17m NaCl
0.115 kg water
Particle molality = 4.17m X 2 = 8.34m
TFP = mKfp
TFP = (8.34 m) (1.853 C/m) = 15.5C
FP = 0C – 15.5 C = -15.5C