BUD 222 - Part II

Building Department
Faculty of Environmental Sciences

Prepared by: Prof. Bala Muhammad

Facilitator: Prof. Bala Muhammad
BAZE University, Abuja

March, 2022
 PART 1: COMPLETED TOPICS (L1 – L6)
Timber in construction - W1
Glass in construction – W2
Metals and steel in construction – W3
Plastics in construction – W4
Floor materials & construction – W5
Stair materials & construction – W6

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 PART II: L7 – L12
Roof materials & construction – W7
Doors; materials & construction – W8
Windows; materials & construction – W9

Finishes:
Plaster and Painting – W10
Bituminous materials & Floor finishes – W11

Revisions & TEQ - W12

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7.1 Introduction to roofs
A roof is part of a building envelope and it is the covering
plus the supporting members located at the uppermost
portion of a building or shelter which provides protection
from weather, notably; rain, snow, heat, wind and sunlight,
as well as animals such as monkeys, gorillas, tigers,
reptiles and birds. From this definition, it is clear that the
framing or structure which supports the covering
membrane is considered as part of the roof.

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7.1 Introduction to roofs
Even though, the primary purpose of roof is to provide
protection against weather and animals, it may also
contribute to
Security; hide, burglar-prevention, safety-signs, etc
Privacy,
Aesthetics,
Storage,
Relaxation,
Platforms; solar-energy, antennas, drying, etc.

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7.2 Glossary of terms

There are numerous terminologies associated with

roof and these can be broadly classified into two
groups; ‘External terminologies of roofs’ (ETR) and
‘Internal terminologies of roofs’ (ITR). Some thirteen
(13) ETR and about nineteen (19) ITR truss are
indicated in Figure 7.1(a) and (b) respectively.

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 (a) (b)
Fig. 17: Roof terminologies (a) ETR and (b) ITR

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7.3 Functional requirements
Although, modernization has brought about many desired
requirements in relation to roofs, but, all roofs are basically
expected to satisfy the following five (5) functional
requirements:
(i)Weather resistance; The roof covering should have
adequate resistance to the effect of weather elements such
as the wind, rain, sun, snow, etc.
(ii)Strengthand stability; By virtue of the fact that roofs must
resists weight from weather elements in addition to those
from the structural and membrane members involved,
sufficient strength is an important requirement. Wind force
may further necessitate efficient stability.

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(iii).Heat protection; Where roof allows excessive
transmission of heat into the enclosures, the habitual
activities within the building could obviously become
unbearable.
(iv) Sound insulation; Noise from all forms of the mechanisms
of urbanization and weather elements especially rainfall
should be limited by roofs to tolerable levels.
(v) .Fire resistance; The role of roofs in the event of fire is
also an important issue. In the event of fire outbreak,
roofs should not collapse within the fire-rating period so
that occupants can escape being entrapped.

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7.4 Types of roofs
Types by shape or appearance
These include: Flat roofs; Pitch roofs; Shell roofs; Dome roofs; Folded
plate roofs; Skylight roofing; Green roofing;
.
Types by materials employed
Typical examples are: Aluminium roofs; Concrete roofs; Rubber
roofing; Copper roofing; Wood roof shingles; Asphalt shingle roofing;
Thatch roof

Concrete roofs; Concrete is an all time material for roofing. Simple

flat roofs to sloped roofs as well as concrete roof tiles offered various
styles and colours to meet the architectural needs. Concrete roof
offers a good advantage to weather and fire resistance.

Rubber roofing; This is suitable where leak-proof roofing is of

optimum importance. Additionally, rubber roof is an eco-friendly and
durable option for roofing. It offers wide range of roofing products for
flat as well as sloped roofs.

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Copper roofing; The most beautiful Copper roof offers more durability
and character than other metal roofs. Appearance of copper roofing
easily complements any building or style from traditional to modern
houses. Copper roof is lightweight and flexible roofing material with long
lifespan.

Clay roof tiles; When it comes to tile roofing, clay roof tiles are the most
admired roofing material. Appearance and durability of clay tiles enhance
the value and beauty of buildings.

Others: Wood roof shingles; Asphalt shingle roofing; Thatch roof;

Bamboo leaf roof

Assignment 4:
Write concise notes on the sound insulation of roofs. Diagrams may
attract marks. [5 marks] Instructions: Two typed pages. Submission;
next week.

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8.1 Introduction to doors

Doors are revolving, sliding, swinging or folding barriers at

the entrance to buildings, rooms or other spaces such as
cupboards that allow people, vehicles or goods to enter and
leave. Depending on the type of the door, means of
positioning could be by the use of hinges or rollers. Doors
can be kept open, closed or locked.

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8.2 Functional requirements of doors
The basic general (functional) requirements which are expected to
be met by doors include:
8.2.1 Safety;
(i)Doors should be designed and arranged in such a way that
potential injury to persons is eliminated
(ii)Door
mechanisms should be easy to operate particularly in an
emergency or hazardous situation.
8.2.1 Security;
(i)Doors should have efficient means of preventing entry except by
permission
(ii)Doorsshould provide the desired sheltering to the contents
behind in order to deter burglary due to exposure.

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Other functional requirements;
(i)Doors should have a clear opening of at least 750 mm
width and 2050 mm height.
(ii)Doors to cabin bathrooms, toilets, and doors that are not
escape routes for more than one person may have a width of
less than 750 mm.
(iii)Panic bars should be provided on doors in areas where
there is a risk of congestion or panic.
(iv)Threshold detailing and door arrangement should stop all
ingress of water from decks.

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8.3 Types of doors
Types of doors based on material of manufacture include:
(i) Timber or wooden doors
(ii) Battened and ledged doors
(iii) Framed and panelled doors
(iv) Flush doors
(v) Glass doors
(vi) PVC doors
(vii) Fiberglass doors
(viii) Metal doors
(ix) Metal and glass doors

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Types of doors based on functions include:
(i) Revolving
(ii) Sliding
(iii) Swinging
(iv) Folding

Typical swinging doors

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Types of door hinges
There are multiple hinges for every application depending on
the type of door that needs the hinge. Hinges provide a
flexible point allowing the door to swing in one or two
directions and also to support the weight of the door. Hinges
could either be right or left.
One of the factors that drive the hinge selection is whether or
not the hinge will be visible or not. The type of hinges is also
determined by the doorframe, location of the door and the
way the door will swing either towards you or away from you.
Some common hinges and the possible applications are:

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(i)Ball bearing hinge - Used mostly on heavy doors. It is
permanently lubricated so it will allow a smoother and easier
door swing.
(ii)Double action spring - Commonly used on kitchen doors
and/or dining rooms. It is not recommended on heavy doors
and sometimes used in two-way swinging doors.
(iii)Flush hinge - The most common used on cabinet doors as
the hinge is largely concealed. It does not require a recess to
be cut and ideal to be used for lightweight doors.
(iv)Swing hinge - The hinge usually found on café-style doors.
The way it works provides lateral adjustment to ensure
perfect alignment.

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(v) Butt hinge - Probably the most used one and the most
installed one. It is available in different sizes (13 to 150 mm).
When installed the only visible aspect of it is the pin used to
join the two rectangular parts together. Most butt hinges are
made of steel; however, at exterior doors brass, stainless
steel, or aluminium should be used in order to prevent
corrosion.
Other hinge types include:
Concealed hinge
Gate hinge
Continuous hinge
Bi-fold hinge
Heavy duty hinge
Typical doors used in buildings
.
.
 Where is the door in this figure?

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9.1 Introduction to windows
Window could be defined as a space usually occupied by
glass or any other material in the wall of a building, to allow
light and air in and to allow people inside the building to see
out. The process of occupying window space within a wall
with manly glass is known as glazing. Principals segments of
windows are window-frame and shutters.

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9.2 Functional requirements of windows
Windows have to fulfil functional as well as esthetical tasks. They
dominate the appearance of a building with their form, structure and
placement on the envelope. In addition to the classical functions of
windows, like the protection against the weather, day-lighting, supply
of fresh air and the connection to the outside, they need to satisfy
thermal and acoustical requirements.

Protection against the weather: The requirements concerning

mechanical stress, joint permeability and resistance to heavy rain are
dearly needed. The requirements towards heavy rain demands that
no water enters the interior when simultaneously exposed to rain and
wind.
Daylight: A sufficient level of daylight reduces the energy demand
and also provides visual comfort to the user. To guarantee a
sufficient level of daylight, the windows have to meet minimal
requirements in size and orientation. Further parameters of influence
are the room geometry and the surrounding buildings (see Daylight,
Tool Shading by Overhangs). Energetic disadvantages have to be
omitted when optimizing a buildings day lighting potential by
enlargement of the glazing area. The energy savings due to reduced
amount of electrical lighting an possibly solar gains have to be
weight against the increased transmission loss.
Ventilation: Windows are used for natural ventilation of rooms. They
have to provide sufficient controlled air exchange and have to
minimize the infiltration and infiltration caused by uncontrolled air
exchange through a careful design (see Ventilation).

Usage of solar energy: In minimizing the heating energy demand of

buildings windows can play an important role in optimizing the
passive solar gains. A positive energy balance, i.e. higher passive
solar gains than transmission heat losses, is only accomplished by
windows with low U-values and high solar heat gain coefficients
(SHGC).
Sound insulation: Noise imposes a health risk for human beings.
Long-term exposure greatly increases the risk for heart and
circulatory diseases. To protect the human being from external noise,
windows have to fulfill requirements concerning airborne sound
insulation. Parameters influencing the sound insulation properties of
a window are on the one side the sound insulation properties of the
window pane and frame itself, and on the other side the airtight
construction of the seal of the casement and the joints. The sound
insulation of the glazing increases with increasing thickness (weight
per area), damping capacity of the space between the panes, and
the number of panes.
Thermal insulation: Heat transmission and airtightness (Glossary)
characterize the thermal insulation qualities of a window during
winter. The thermal insulation during summer is also influenced by
the solar heat gain coefficient of the window pane. An excess of solar
energy input has to be avoided using additional shading devices.

Security: security guidelines are divided into active and passive

measures. Passive security deals with the protection of the human
being during the usage (Opening, closing, cleaning). Active security
means the protection against theft or direct attacks.
9.3 Types of windows in buildings

(i) Fixed windows

(ii) Sliding windows
(iii) Pivoted windows
(iv) Double hung windows
(v) Louvered windows
(vi) Casement windows
(vii) Metal windows
(viii) Sash windows.
.
.
Sunhouse
Assignment 5:
Write concisely on mosquito-proofing in windows.
Diagrams may attract marks. [5 marks] Instructions: Two
typed pages. Submission; next week.
10.1 Plasters and Plastering
Plaster is a fluid mixture of cement, lime and sand, used
as a finishing material. It should have the ability to adhere
to a substrate such as concrete, masonry, or lath, or to
itself. Stucco is a common type of plaster, used on wood
or masonry walls, which can be placed and formed in a
variety of shapes, designs and textures.
Plasters serve two primary functions:
• Appearance
• Protection
Fresh plaster should have good adhesion, cohesion, and
workability. Adhesion is the capability to stick to a surface,
which is influenced by aggregate, w/c ratio, and
properties of the substrate. Cohesion is the ability of the
plaster to stick to itself, and is affected by the type of mix,
aggregate properties (gradation and size), and mix
proportions. Workability is the ease with which plaster
can be placed, shaped, floated, and trowelled, and
depends primarily on cohesion and adhesion of the mix.
Stucco is applied in three coats:
The scratch coat, the brown coat, and the finish coat. The
scratch coat can be applied directly onto concrete or
masonry walls, or onto a rough surface made from
woven, welded or expanded metal lath (metal
reinforcement). Woven wire lath is fabricated from
galvanized-steel wire, with or without stiffener wire
backing. Welded wire lath is fabricated from copper-
bearing, cold drawn, galvanized-steel wire, by welding it
into an intersecting grid pattern.
Stucco ……...
Expanded metal lath is a fabric manufactured from coils
of steel that are slit and then expanded, forming a
diamond pattern. Polyvinyl lath is also available, but
should not be used when extreme variations in
temperature are expected. Plaster strip should be
installed wherever plaster or stucco terminates or abuts
with dissimilar materials: control joints may be required
over large surfaces.
For direct application over masonry walls, the surface
should be rough, clean and firm. Proper suction is
essential for good bonding of stucco- on masonry or
concrete work, and also between coats. Suction is
obtained by uniformly dampening – but not wetting – the
entire wall surface before applying the stucco.
.
The scratch coat is typically about 3/8 in. (10 mm) thick.
Before it hardens, the scratch coat should be
crosshatched, which will act as a key for the brown coat.
The scratch coat should be kept continuously wet after it
sets (for at least two days) and then allowed to dry before
applying the brown coat.
Before spreading the brown coat, which is about 3/8 in.
(10 mm) thick, the scratch coat should be dampened
uniformly to provide suction. The surface of the brown
coat is cross-scratched lightly to provide a key for the
finish coat. The brown coat is kept wet for two days and
then allowed to dry.
A seven-day interval should pass between the
applications of brown and finish coats. Before the finish
coat, the brown coat surface should be dampened
uniformly to provide suction. Finish colour and texture are
added to the mixture during the finish coat. The stucco
should be cured; fogging is the preferred method of
curing.
Well-graded sand is important in the application of plaster
or stucco. For base, coats, coarser aggregate particles
within the allowable sizes are desirable. For the finish
coat, finer sizes are suited. High-graded mineral pigments
may be used in the finish coat for color effects. Normal
Portland cement with or without lime is used for the mix.
 Plastering
Plastering process may include a maximum of three
coats, each having its own function

• Render coat – to level the background;

• Floating coat – to produce a surface of uniform suction;
• Finishing coat – to provide a smooth, hard finish.
The first two coats require relatively coarse-textured
plasters applied in thicknesses of up to 20 mm. the
functions of these are now largely combined in a single
undercoat or ‘browning’ coat. The finish coat utilizes a
much finer material of thickness up to 5 mm. Some
backgrounds, such as plasterboard, provide a flat surface
with uniform suction, so that a single finishing coat will
suffice.
10.2 Painting and Varnishing
Introduction to painting
There are many different types of paint available. They
may be required to perform several different functions:

(i) To provide a protective layer on the material covered;

(ii) To provide a decorative finish;
(iii) To fulfil special requirement – for example light or heat
reflecting qualities.
10.2 Painting and Varnishing
Introduction to painting
It will be clear that not all paints are required or able to
perform all functions. For some uses the decorative
ability is paramount; in other cases protection is the only
important factor. The concepts are simple but, because of
the different natural and man-made substances used and
the application requirements, the technology is
complicated. Paint, like concrete, must be satisfactory in
both wet and hardened state.
Painting System
There are usually three stages used in painting scheme:
Primer
The function of a primer is to prepare the material by
sealing the bare surface, to provide protection against
corrosion and dampness and to give a good adhesive
surface for the following coats.
Painting System
Undercoat
The function of an undercoat is to provide a smooth
surface, good opacity (hiding power) and good adhesion
for the finishing coat. Undercoats and priming coats do
not usually wear well without a finishing coat as they are
not impermeable to water and do not resist dirt.
Undercoats usually contain a large amount of pigment for
hiding power.
Finishing coat
The topcoat must provide a durable layer of the required
colour. The texture of the finishing coat may be gloss, silk
or matt. It will be appreciated that it is not usually possible
to combine all the functions in one can without sacrificing
some of the quality.
Constituents of Paints
Paint is essentially a suspension of an insoluble
powdered solid in a liquid. The powdered solid is known
as the pigment and the liquid as the medium, vehicle or
binder. However, many other materials must be added to
achieve the optimum results both for the application and
the finished situation.
Constituents of Paints…….
Medium, vehicle or binder are terms used to refer to the
oils or resins or combinations of the two that form the
basis of all paints. Linseed oil is an example of a
vegetable oil used as a binder. In all cases it must have
the ability to change from a fairly low viscosity liquid into a
hard plastic film at the same time binding together the
fine particles of pigment. The actual properties of the
binder may be modified to a large extent by the pigment.
Constituents of Paints……
Pigments are fine insoluble crystalline particles which
give colour-hiding ability and body to the paint. They may
be organic, inorganic or synthetic. If the resulting
hardened paint film is to be glossy, the pigment must all
be below the surface. The amount of gloss is determined
by the type and shape of pigment and the ratio of
pigment to binder, usually on a volume basis. In general
very glossy paints have less pigment and therefore less
hiding power, while matt ones are under bound.
Increasing the pigment proportion increases hardness but
decreases flexibility.
Constituents of Paints…..
Extenders are used to improve some of the properties of
the paint, although they have little or no pigment value.
They can, for instance, be used to control the amount of
gloss. A semi-gloss paint might need so much pigment to
achieve the correct gloss characteristic that would not
pour and would leave heavy brush marks.
Constituents of Paints…..
The addition of suitable filler can considerably reduce
cost and at the same time, improve viscosity and finish.
Only enough pigment to give color and hiding power is
needed. The amount of extender used varies, depending
on the paint, but may be as much as 45 per cent.
Materials used as extenders do not affect the color
because their refractive index is very close to that of the
medium. Extender particles are much larger than pigment
particles.
Constituents of Paints
Solvents are volatile liquids added at a suitable stage to
lower the viscosity of the wet paint. They must evaporate
very rapidly when the paint is applied to a surface, so that
high viscosity is obtained and hence freedom from runs.
The solvent can affect the final result and it is vital that
the correct type is used for any particular resin system.

Driers are added to oil-bound paints. These are usually

oxides which give out oxygen and thereby increase the
rat of oxidation of the binder and thus the rate of drying.
The rate of drying can also be increased by using blown
linseed oil – linseed oil which has air blown through it.
Plasticizers are added to some paints to make the
hardened film more flexible.

Light stabilizers are added to make the paint colour more

stable under sunlight.

Fungicides and insecticides are added to prevent attack

by insects and to prevent the formation of moulds. These
are needed with household vinyl emulsion paints to
prevent mould growth feeding on the cellulose or other
colloids in the dry film.
Types of Paints
Oil-bound paints (convertible)
Until the beginning of the century, nearly all paints
consisted of white lead dispersed in linseed oil. In fact all
natural oils of both animal and vegetable origin are tri-
esters of glycerol. These are fatty acids with a molecular
chain containing most common 18 carbon atoms.
Types of Paints
Oil-bound paints (convertible) …….
The process of hardening is firstly evaporation of the
volatile solvent, followed by polymerization of the fatty
acids molecules after the addition of oxygen. The
resulting polymer is quite different from the original oil
and is not soluble in the solvent, so there are no
problems when brushing on later coats. They need a very
long drying time, varying from 3-12 hours, depending on
temperature and humidity.
Alkyd resin (convertible)
These are again often based on linseed oil but contain a
polymeric ester as a result of the reaction between
glycerol and phthalic anhydride. They need a shorter
drying time; in normal conditions they should be ‘touch’
dry in about 3 hours, though gloss paints need rather
longer.

Three main types are used:

• ‘Long-oil’ alkyds with more than 60 per cent oil;
• ‘Short-oil’ alkyds with more than 40 per cent oil;
• The non-drying variety that are used with nitrocellulose
resins.
The thixotropic alkyds are produced from the same raw
materials but modified by reaction with small quantities of
polyamide resin.
Paints based on alkyd resins form the major type of
interior and exterior finish for woodwork; they are harder,
more adherent and have better gloss and durability than
the pure linseed they are derived from. Lifetimes vary
between 2 and 8 years, depending on situation and
exposure. The biggest cause of deterioration is sunlight
which embrittles the paint, hence south-facing aspects
deteriorate most quickly.
Polyurethane paints (convertible)
These can be regarded as modified alkyds and give a
coating of superior hardness, though this can accelerate
the destruction of the paint in external application.

Epoxy esters of fatty acids (convertible)

These are produced by reacting epoxy resins with fatty
acids and give greater water and chemical resistance
than normal oil-based paints. Linseed esters are used as
boat varnishes because of their great water resistance.
Emulsion paints (convertible)
The resin consists of a latex similar to rubber. It is
insoluble in water which is present tot eh extent of about
30 per cent. A typical latex is polyvinyl acetate (PVA) and
the pigment might be titanium dioxide.
Finishes are normally ‘matt’ (dull). ‘Silk’ or ‘satin’ though
some gloss paint are now available. Drying times vary
according to conditions – they may be as low as one hour
in a warm, dry, well- ventilated enclosure. In cold, damp
conditions, they may take a long time to set or fail to set
at all.
Advantages of emulsion paints are that the hardened film
is fairly permeable, hence the paints can be applied to
slightly damp materials, such as new plaster, permitting
subsequent drying of the background. PVA emulsion are
alkali-resistant, hence they can be used on cement
backgrounds subject to some dampness.
Emulsion paint of suitable composition can be used
externally and they now form an alternative to traditional
oil-based paints for wood, though their rapid drying in hot
condition makes it difficult to maintain a ‘wet edge’.
Lifetime is 4 to 7 years depending on quality and degree
of exposure.
Paint Failure

Saponification
Oil-bound paints such as alkyds may sometimes fail
when used on certain building materials. When an acid
and alkali react together, the result is a soap and water.
This is known as saponification. Many building materials
such as lime mortars and plasters, Portland cement and
asbestos cement develop alkalis when new. If surfaces
are coated with an oil-bound paint, particularly in the
presence of even small quantities of moisture, they would
cause saponification.
Loss of Adhesion
Loss of adhesion in walls can occur through a number of
causes. The effect may lead to blistering, peeling or
flaking of the paint film. Repeated condensation on
certain types of paint can cause a swelling and shrinking
of the binder, particularly when freshly applied. It could
also be caused by defects in the surface which is being
painted, particularly where gypsum plaster has dried out
before hydration is completed, resulting in a powdery
surface. The same fault may also cause delayed
expansion of the plaster.
Chalking
This is the term used to describe erosion of the paint film
due to inadequate binder performance. It is caused by
use of paints containing either a poor quality binder or an
inadequate quantity of binder.
Varnishing
Varnish refers to resins dissolved in liquids for applying
on wood, metals or other materials to form hard, clear,
shiny surface when dry. Varnish is a clear transparent
hard protective finish or film. Varnish has little or no color
and has no added pigment as opposed to paint or wood
stain which contains pigment. Varnish finishes are usually
glossy but may be designed to produce satin or semi-
gloss sheens by the addition of "flatting" agents.
QUESTIONS
• Explain why it is unwise to paint new cement
surfaces with an oil-bound paint. Describe possible visible
effects. How can these defects be prevented?
11.1 Bitumen and Bituminous Materials
Bitumen is a viscous liquid or solid consisting essentially
of complex hydrocarbons. It is black or brown in colour
and possesses cementitious and waterproofing
properties. It is obtained by refinery processes from
petroleum, and is also found as a natural deposit or as
component of naturally occurring asphalt, in which it is
associated with mineral matter.
11.1 Bitumen and Bituminous Materials

All bituminous materials are completely soluble in carbon

disulfide and are non-volatile nontoxic, and soften when
heated. The most common bituminous materials are
asphalts, tars and pitches. Read more….
Asphalt
Asphalt refers to black bituminous material usually found
at the surface of the ground near petroleum deposits.
However, asphalt can also be produced by distilling
petroleum. In fact, at present, its supply is dominated by
refining process. Asphalt is mostly used in pavement
constructions and for sealing and waterproofing
purposes. Properties of asphalt include consistency,
specific gravity and durability).
Tar
Tar is a dark, heavy, viscous substance or residue, which
is obtained by the distillation of organic materials such as
coal, wood, pine or shale. However, tars are also
produced by cracking petroleum vapors. In earlier times it
was often used as a water repellent coating for boats,
ships, and roofs. Today, tar is used primarily for
waterproofing membranes (such as roofs) and
pavements.
Tar
Wood tar is also available in diluted form as tar water,
which has numerous uses such as flavoring ingredients,
spice for food, scent and steamer for saunas, anti-
dandruff agent, component of cosmetics as well as tar
paints (tar and linseed oil varnish used to saturate and
tone wood and protect it from weather).
Pitches
Pitch is a name for any of a number of viscoelastic
polymers. Pitch can be natural or manufactured, derived
from petroleum, coal tar, or plants. Various forms of
pitchmay also be called tar, bitumen, or asphalt. Pitch
produced from plants is also known as resin.

Question
Compare and contrast between asphalt and tar as
materials for construction.
11.2 Floor Finishes
Finishing work is the concluding stage of construction; in
many cases, the overall quality of a building or structure
being put into service depends on the quality of its
execution. The main types of finishing work include
facing, plastering, flooring (and parquetry), painting,
wallpapering, and glazing. Floor finishes include:

11.2 Floor Finishes
 Tiles
 Natural stone
 Gravel floor
 Parquet
 Wood
 Engineered wood
 Seamless floor
 Carpet.
11.3 Ceilings
A ceiling is an overhead interior surface that covers the
upper limits of a room. It is not generally considered a
structural element, but a finished surface concealing the
underside of the roof structure or the floor of a storey
above. Ceiling designs have evolved over the years, and
these are some of the most common types:



Conventional ceiling
 Suspended ceiling
 Tray ceiling
 Coffered ceiling
Cathedral ceiling
 Coved ceiling
 Shed ceiling
 Beam ceiling.


11.4 Wallpapers
Write concisely on wallpapers for;
(i)Walls and
(ii)Ceilings.

Instructions; Two pages only, one for each.

Be ready to make five minutes presentations in the class.
L12 Révisions 3hrs

(i) Révision: 90 minutes

(ii) Typical Examination Questions (TEQ) 45 minutes
(iii) Q & A 45 minutes