Lecture

CHEM 1 Learning
101: Outcomes
Atoms and Molecules

Lecture 1
Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
• Explain problems with early atomic structure proposals
• Appreciate the concepts of quantisation and wave-particle duality
• Use the de Broglie equation to calculate the wavelength of a particle
History of Atomic
HistoryStructure:
of Atomic Structure:
Greek Philosophers (500 – 100 BC)
Greek Philosophers (500 – 100 BC)

• Were interested in how matter divides

• water into droplets
• sand into grains
• What the smallest unit of matter was
History of Atomic Structure(1800s-1900s):
Dalton 1808 – atoms are the smallest particles.
Thompson 1897 discovered negatively charged electrons
(arguably discovered by Greeks, but not charge)
History of Atomic
‘Plum Pudding’ model Structure:
of the atom
‘Plum Pudding’ model of the atom

Atoms consist of a large, positively charged mass with small, negatively charged electrons
embedded within it.
History of Atomic Structure:
Testing the ‘Plum Pudding’ model

History of Atomic Structure:

α-particles Testing the ‘Plum Pudding’ model

Atoms in a gold film

• α-particles are directed at a very thin gold film, a few atoms thick
• Most α-particles pass ‘through’ the atoms and are undeflected
• A few α-particles are very significantly deflected

This result suggested the Plum Pudding model was wrong

History of Atomic Structure:
Rutherford’s Model of the atom

History of Atomic Structure:

Atomic radius
Rutherford’s Model
~50of
pmthe atom

Nucleus = majority of
mass, radius ~10-3 pm Electron = 1/1850 mass

Proposed that atoms are comprised of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by an equal
number of negatively charged orbiting electrons.
3 Problems with this model – no x-rays emitted, no collapse as energy runs out, spectra…
Atomic spectra Atomic spectra
Emission in lines not continuous
ΔE = hν
Planck constant, h = 6.626 × 10-34 J.s

Bohr theory
Electrons only possess fixed
energies (orbits), i.e. quantised
Each energy level characterised by a
quantum number, n
The pattern of the emission lines indicates the energy levels – we can calculate
energy using classical mechanics if electron is particle of mass m e, charge e & n
 Why do we care?
• We will shortly see (lecture 4) that quantum
number n defines PERIODS in the periodic
table, and accounts for the difference in
CHEMISTRY between e.g. carbon and lead.
 Einstein and the
Einstein andPhotoelectric Effect
the Photoelectric Effect
Einstein demonstrated the quantum behaviour of radiation:
Experiment: UV light is
shone onto a metal
surface in a vacuum.
Observation:
electrons are
ejected
hν hν=Φ+E KE
where Φ = work function
EKE = kinetic energy of ejected electron
(i) radiation frequency must be above a threshold for electrons to be ejected
(ii) the threshold is specific to the metal
(iii) increasing the radiation frequency (decreasing the wavelength) above the threshold does
not lead to more e- being ejected, but the e- have greater kinetic energy.
(iv) increasing the intensity of the light increases the number of e - that are ejected but does not
increase their energy.
Physics not chemistry (& don’t need to remember details) BUT -
this experiment demonstrates that radiation can behave like a
particle (photon) electrons next…
 The double-slit experiment
The double-slit experiment

Incident
beam of
light Constructive
and destructive
interference

This experiment demonstrates that radiation can behave like a wave

When done with electron beam, the result is the same: wave behaviour
ELECTRONS (and other matter) ARE BOTH WAVES AND PARTICLES
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY IS BORN
 Why do we care (2)?
• Electrons are what hold molecules together –
to understand their behaviour we need to
appreciate (not understand the physics) how
they behave as particles / waves.

• We will shortly see (lecture 6) how the wave

nature of electrons allows bonds to form, and
defines the shapes of molecules.
Wave-Particle Duality and the de Broglie Relationship
Wave-Particle Duality and the de Broglie Relationship
de Broglie proposed that electrons behaved like waves and also that all
matter had wave properties.

Combining E=hν (relating to wave behaviour)

and E = m c2 (relating to particle behaviour)

gives h ν = m c2

we know that ν = c / λ, (substitute in c / λ for ν)

so h c / λ = m c2 (divide through by c)
then h/λ=mc
we also know that:
p = mc (substitute in p for mc, p = momentum)

So: h/λ=p
This is the de Broglie relationship.
It relates particle and wave behaviour.
It says that the wavelength associated with a particle is related
to its momentum.