Module - 3

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Overview
⚫ Liquid Propellants
⚫ Feed systems
⚫ Propellant tanks, injectors
⚫ Thrust chamber & cooling methods
⚫ Thrust vector Control
⚫ Thrust Termination
⚫ Advantages
⚫ Hybrid Rockets 10/31/2022 2
Liquid Propellants

Propellant
◦ Working substance of rocket engines, constitute the
fluid that undergoes chemical & Thermodynamic
changes
◦ Mono Propellant

◦ Bi Propellant

◦ Cold gas Propellant

◦ Cryogenic Propellant

◦ Storable Propellant

◦ Gelled Propellant 10/31/2022 3

 Monopropellant
⚫ A monopropellant contains an
oxidizing agent and
combustible matter in a single
substance
⚫ It may be mixture of several
compounds or homogeneous
material such as hydrogen
peroxide or hydrazine
⚫ Eg: Low impulse rocket motors

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 Cont..

⚫ Mono Propellants(chemicals that release

energy through exothermic chemical
decomposition)

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Bipropellant

⚫ It has two separate liquid propellants, an

oxidizer and a fuel.

⚫ They are stored separately and mixed at the

combustion chamber.

⚫ Eg. nitrogen tetra oxide and monomethyl

hydrazine.

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Cold gas propellant
⚫ It is stored at very high
pressure, gives a low
performance, allows a simple
system and it is reliable
⚫ It has been used for roll
control and attitude control
⚫ Cheapest, simplest & reliable
⚫ Eg- Nitrogen
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Cryogenic propellant

⚫ Cryo – cold & genics - producing

⚫ It is a liquefied gas at low temperature, such
as liquid oxygen (-183°C) or liquid
hydrogen (-253°C)

⚫ Provisions for venting the storage tank and

minimizing vaporization losses are
necessary with this type
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 Cont..

⚫ Temp. range – (-150˚C to -273 ˚C )

⚫ Formation of ice, increase in vehicle mass
⚫ Damage , malfunction of valves
⚫ Thermally insulated, low conductivity tank
⚫ Can’t be kept more than a week
⚫ Prior loading – evacuate the air in the tank,
⚫ Frozen particle block
⚫ Pipes, tanks need to chilled
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Storable propellants
⚫ Storable propellants (eg, nitric acid or gasoline) are liquid at

ambient temperature and can be stored for long periods in

sealed tanks.

⚫ Space storable propellants are liquid in the environment of

space and storability depends on specific tank design,

thermal conditions and tank pressure.

⚫ Eg. Hypergolic fuels – hydrazine, monomethylhydrazine

and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine & oxidiser - nitrogen

tetroxide 10/31/2022 10
Gelled propellant
⚫ It is a thixotropic liquid with a gelling
additive.

⚫ It behaves like a jelly or thick paint.

⚫ It will not spill or leak

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Propellant characteristics
⚫ High performance or high specific impulse
⚫ Minimum variation in thrust or chamber pressure
⚫ Adequate physical properties over the intended
operating temperature range.
⚫ High density
⚫ Low absorption of moisture
⚫ Safe, low cost, controllable
⚫ Non toxic exhaust gases
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Propellant Feed system
⚫ Used to raise the pressure of propellant to the
thrust chamber
⚫ Energy obtained from high pressure gas or
centrifugal pump or combination of two
Two types of propellant feed system.
They are
1. Gas Pressure Feed System
2. Turbo Pump Feed system
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Selection of feed system & its components

1. Application of rocket, duration

2. No. (or) Type of Thrust Chamber
3. Ease of manufacture, low Cost, min.inert
mass

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Gas Pressure Feed System

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 Cont..
⮚Restricted orifice(RO) - limit a flow rate /
reduce a pressure in a pipe

⮚Bleed Valve - removing liquid from tank check

Valve

⮚Check Valve - To prevent backflow

⮚Filler Neck - Provides a pathway from the external
fuel cap to the fuel tank

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 Cont..

Pressurizing gas is chosen based on

⚫ Density
⚫ Pressure
⚫ Total wt. of gas & tank
Gases commonly used for pressurization

⚫ Nitrogen
⚫ Helium and Air
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Turbo Pump Feed System

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 Cont..

⚫ The turbines derive the power from the

expansion of hot gases

⚫ The gases are generated separately by the

gas generator

⚫ The turbine operates on a separate gas

stream generated from the propellants in an
independent gas generator
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 Cont..
⚫ The propellant flow required for driving
the turbines is of the order of 1.5 to 5% of
the main flow.

⚫ The turbine exhaust is also expanded

through an exhaust nozzle to provide an
additional thrust

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Pressure Ranges
⚫ Pressurized feed system -1.3 and 9 MPa or
about 200 to 1800 lbf/in.
⚫ For high-pressure gas - 6.9 to 69 MPa
⚫ These tanks have thick walls and are heavy
⚫ For turbopump feed system it is necessary to
pressurize the propellant in the range of 0.07
to 0.34 MPa or 10 to 50 lbf/in
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Typical features of liquid prop. feed sys
Enhance Safety
Sniffing Device
Check Valve
Isolation Valve
Relief Valve (or) Relief Valve Diaphragms
Provide Control
Valves
Sensors
System display
Throttle Valve
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 Cont..
Enhance Reliability
Filters

Heaters

Long Storage Life

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Gas pressure Vs Turbo pump feed system

S.No Gas pressure feed system Turbo pump feed system

1 Inert gas is carried separately Not necessary to carry inert gas.

2 No moving parts. Having moving parts.

3 System is simple. System is quite complex.

Unsuitable for large rocket
engines& low range Suitable for large rocket
4
missiles. engines& long range missiles.

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 Propellant Tanks

Common Tank Materials

⚫ Aluminum, stainless steel
⚫ Titanium
⚫ Alloy steel and fiber-reinforced plastics

Ullage
⚫ The extra volume of gas above the propellant
in sealed tanks
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Tank arrangements

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Valves and Pipe Lines
⚫ Valves control the flow of liquids and gases

⚫ Pipes conduct these fluids to the intended

components

⚫ There are no liquid rocket engines without them.

There are many different types of valves.

⚫ All have to be reliable, light weight, leak proof, and

must withstand intensive vibrations and very loud

noises 10/31/2022 27
Pipes /Lines
⚫ The various fluids in a rocket engine are

conveyed by pipes or lines, usually made of

metal and are joined by fittings or welds

⚫ Their design must provide thermal expansion and

provide support to minimize vibration effects.

⚫ For gimbaled thrust chambers it is necessary to

provide flexibility
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 Cont..

⚫ Piping to allow the thrust axis to be

rotated through a small angle, typically +3
to 10 °

⚫ Flexibility is provided by flexible pipe

joints and by allowing pipes to deflect
when using two or more right angle turns
in the lines
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 Commonly used Rocket Fuel

⚫ Fuels
◦ kerosene, alcohol, liquid hydrogen
hydrazine and its derivatives

⚫ Oxidizers
◦ Nitric acid, nitrogen tetroxide, liquid oxygen,
and liquid fluorine

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Injectors

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 Layout

Diameter typical range: 0.8 mm to 2.5 mm

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 Cont..

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Design consideration of an injector / factors
influencing the injector behavior

⚫ Propellant combination
⚫ Injection orifice pattern and orifice size
⚫ Transient condition
⚫ Heat transfer characteristics
⚫ Structural design aspects
⚫ Combustion stability
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Doublet & Triplet impinging stream pattern

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Self impinging & Non impinging (or)
shower Head

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Sheet (or) spray & Co-axial Hollow post injector

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 Design consideration of Combustion
Chamber

⚫ Combustion chamber shape & Volume

⚫ Chamber wall loads and stresses

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Factors to be considered for CC
⚫ Heat Transfer
⚫ Combustion Stability
⚫ Weight
⚫ Ease of manufacturing

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Combustion chamber shape & Volume

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Combustion chamber shape & Volume

⚫ Spherical or near spherical compared to

cylindrical CC offers the same volume &
less cooling surface & weight

⚫ Sphere has smallest surface to volume ratio

⚫ Structural walls of spherical chamber are

half the thickness of cylinder

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 Cont..
⚫ Spherical is difficult to manufacture & poor
performance
⚫ Contraction area ratio(cross-sectional area of the

combustor divided by the throat area) – 2 to 5, for

pressure feed system (low thrust engine)
⚫ For turbopump feed system(high thrust &
high chamber pressure) lower ratio values 1.3
to 2.5
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 Cont..
Characteristic length L* - Volume / Surface

⚫ From injection of the reactants until

completion of the chemical reactions and
conversion of the products into hot gases,
requires finite amounts of time and
volume, as expressed by the characteristic

length L* = Vc / At
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 Cont..
⚫ Large engines are constructed with a low
contraction ratio and a comparatively long
length

⚫ Smaller chambers employ a large

contraction ratio with a shorter length,
while still providing sufficient L* for
adequate vaporization and combustion
dwell-time 10/31/2022 44
 Cont..

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 Cont..

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Chamber wall loads & stresses
⚫ Components are strong enough to carry loads
⚫ Potential failures(a component, subsystem, or
system could potentially fail to meet the design
intent. ) have been identified with possible
remedies & redesigns
⚫ Masses have been reduced to practical minimum
⚫ Safety factor(max. stress / working Stress) is 2 to
6 times larger than machinery
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 Cont..
Several load conditions are considered for rocket components
⚫ Maximum expected working load(WL)- eg. Chamber
Pressure
⚫ Design Limit Load(DLL) – 1.2 times WL. Eg. Variation in
material composition
⚫ Damaging load- based on Yield load,(point at which the
material transforms from elastic to plastic) 1.5times DLL
⚫ Proof Test Load – done during development &
manufacturing inspection

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10/31/2022 49
 Cont..

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TVC _Inferences!!

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 Thrust Vector Control(TVC)
• Used to steer or regulate the trajectory of
a vehicle during the flight
• Change of direction of thrust w.r.t to
symmetry axis of the rocket
• Correct deviation
• Correct misalignment of thrust

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Choosing TVC
• Characteristics of Engine/ motor, flight
application and duration
• Number of Engine/Motor
• Weight , Space Limitations, cost
• Rotational Accelerations
• Available Actuating power

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Methods
• Gimbaled Engine / Hinge Engine
• Flexible Laminated bearing
• Flexible nozzle joint
• Jet Vanes
• Jet Avators
• Jet Tabs
• Side Injection
• Small control TC (or) Vernier rocket
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Gimbaled Engine / Hinge Engine
✔ Engine has a hinge / gimbal (universal
joint – allows rotation of an object in
single axis)
✔ To control pitch and yaw movement
✔ Two or more engines are used in a
stage, they can be moved in opposite
direction for roll control
✔ May use auxiliary engine for roll
control
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Flexible Laminated bearing
• Nozzle is mounted to the
structure by a seal, which is
stiff in one direction
• Allows rotational motion to
deflect the nozzle
• Used with solid rocket motor

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 Jet Vanes
• Vanes placed in the exhaust flow of the

nozzle and it allows for roll control

• Jet vanes are pair of heat resistant , A/D

wing shaped surfaces submerged in the

exhaust jet of fixed rocket nozzle

• Drag 2 to 5% and thrust loss of 0.5 to 3%

• Vane moves Clock Wise or Anti Clock

Wise

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 Jet Avators

• Rotating aerofoil shaped collar, gimbaled

near nozzle exit

• Consists two rings. One for yaw control

and remaining for pitch control

• Rings are placed external, thrust loss is

minimal, when compared to jet vanes

• Unsymmetrical distribution of gas flow

• Provides side force

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 Jet Tabs
• Simple mechanism

• Used in tactical missiles(<300km)

• Four paddles rotate in and out of hot gas flow

• Tabs rotated by hydraulic actuators

• Power, supplied from compressed nitrogen stored at 3000psi

• Suitable for low area ratio nozzle

• Thrust loss is high, when tabs are rotated at full angle

• No Thrust loss, when tabs are in neutral position

• Tab blocks 16% of nozzle exit

• TVC angle deflection 9 deg.

• Max deflection angle 12deg.

• Vanes – tungsten
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 Side Injection
• Fluids – Hydrazine , Nitrogen Tetra oxide

• Need propellant tank, feed system

• One fluid at a time

• Gas is vented from main CC or auxiliary

gas generator

• Prevent erosion of valves occurs, carbon

carbon structural parts are used

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Vernier Rockets

• Provides roll control for single

engine stages during the main
engine burn
• Control the rocket after the
main engine shut off

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 Thrust Termination
• R & D Purpose
• If it crosses the safe boundary
• Characteristics of propellant during partial burn
• To hit the target, it need to stop the motor
• Retrograde
• Dome like cap placed with void
• Pyrotechnic device (or) Explosive bolt
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 Advantages & Disadvantages
Solid Rockets
S.No Advantages Disadvantages
.
1 More thrust for a similar size Can't be turned off- once the burn
rocket starts, it goes until fuel is used up

2 solid motors are easier to Lower specific impulse 274.5 sec.

manufacture, store and handle

Liquid Rockets
1 Variable thrust- the amount of fuel Difficult to store, maintain and
and rate of burn can be changed in service the propellant to liquid tanks
flight i.e.more control

2 Can be turned off and on many complex parts making it

whenever required. difficult to design and fabricate the
engines

3 Higher specific impulse Vulnerable to leaks

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Hybrid Rockets

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 NPTEL link’s for Reference
⚫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9xHuVQAS
RLU&t=1430s
⚫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hGDlaels2N
M
⚫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hVTu_XO
WTGE
⚫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sKkzHrhoS
Sw&t=36s
⚫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HlvOeUnt1
U4&t=223s

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