RELIGION THEORIES

[ Functionalists]
• Functionalist Approach to Religion
• Malinowski- The anthropologist agree’s with Durkhiem’s view to religion promoting
social solidarity in society. Malinowski describes how religion performs psychological
functions for individuals that helps them to cope with emotional stress that would
undermine society. This occurs when:
• 1. Where the outcome is important but uncontrollable. His study of Trobiand Islanders
reveals that when they did fishing in the ocean, they performed “canoe magic”. This
ritual helped them psychologically overcome fear and feel in control of the unforeseen
natural events.
• 2. At times of life crises such as birth, puberty, marriage and death. Religion helps to
minimise the psychological disruption for the people in society. For example, funeral
rituals reinforce a feeling of solidarity among the survivors giving comfort to the
bereaved. Malinowski argues that death is in fact the main reason for religion.
• Talcott Parsons- He is a sociologist that sees religion as helping people to cope
with the uncontrollable outcomes and unforeseen events that occur in society
such as losing a loved one. He identifies 2 functions religion performs for society.
• · It creates and legitimates society’s central values.
• · It’s the primary source of meaning.
• For example religion legitimates basic norms and values in society by making
them sacred to society’s members. In such societies like USA, it has sacralised
American values such as individualism, meritocracy and self discipline which serve
to promote value consensus and social stability. Religion also provides a source of
meaning to answering ultimate questions such as why people are suffering like
when people are murdered or die young. Some of the answers it gives are that it
is a test of faith and those that follow the rules will be rewarded in heaven.
• Emile Durkhiem- Durkhiem’s view to religion is that it is also the origin of human thought and our reason
to think conceptually. It performs cognitive functions because In order to think at all we need categories
such as time, space, substance and number which he portrays in his book Primitive Classification. For
example it is impossible to think of an event that occurred outside time and space. In order to share
thoughts with others, we use the same categories and ideals such as a creator or God bringing the world
into existence at the beginning of time.
• Durkhiem also claimed the essence of religion could be found by studying it in its simplest form. That by
doing studies on Arunta, an Australian clan society he could understand the essence of religion. Arunta
clans performed rituals involving the worship to a sacred totem which is the clan’s emblem. This emblem
therefore symbolizes the clan, its origin and its identity. Thus when the clan is worshipping the totems,
they are in reality worshipping society itself. (Durkheim)
• Even so, his views have been criticised by postmodernists like Mestrovic who point out that his study
only really applies to small scale societies which are not as complex as large ones. Also, postmodernist
theorists like Grace Davie would argue about a trend towards vicarious religion. She agrees that people
don’t attend religious institutions as much but they still believe in God so only the obligation to attend
has declined due to changes in society. (Mestrovic) (Davie)
• Milton Yinger- Milton Yinger is a functionalist who saw religion as a
way to answer ultimate questions for people in society. Such
questions are about what the meaning of life is and what occurs after
death. This is because many people in societies will need answers and
will not be able to contribute properly to it as it would cause
disruption unless they are answered. Therefore society won’t be
functioning properly without it as it stabilizes psychological thoughts
Marxist approach to religion
• Marxist Approach to Religion
• Marxist views on religion are based on class conflict. They see religion as an instrument that divides society
into two classes, the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat. The Bourgeoisie own the means of production
exploiting the labour of the Proletariat for their own profits in modern capitalist society. Karl Marx identifies
how religion is used as a tool to blind the Proletariat from the truth through the ideological processes it
performs for society.
• Marx also saw religion like opium used to dull the pain of exploitation because religion is a product of
alienation. Alienation involves loss of control over something that one has produced. The working class don’t
have the means of production in society so they cannot express themselves fully as creative beings.
• Similarily Lenin describes how religion is an intoxicant doled out to the masses by the ruling class in order to
confuse them and keep them in their place. Therefore the ruling class are manipulating the masses so their
ruling power can’t be overthrown.
• An example of religion being a way of controlling the masses is that it legitimates power given to those in the
ruling class such as Kings. For example during the 16th century, there was an ideology created of a King being
God’s representative on earth which inflicted total obedience to the people. Thus, being disobedient to such
a man would not only be illegal but a sinful challenge to God’s authority
Feminist view on religion
• Feminist Views of Religion
• Feminists see religion as institutions serving the purpose of keep society patriarchal through the ideology it
invokes to its followers. For example:
• · Women are segregated in places of worship. They are placed in non-important locations of some religious
institutions therefore showing how devalued they are in contemporary religions. (Jean Holm)
• · Religious organisations are mainly male dominated despite the fact women may often participate more in
them. For example Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women to become Priests. Armstrong sees how
women’s exclusion from priesthood is evidence of marginalisation. Also in many Christian religions, women
were forbidden to become priests until recently in 1992.
• · It is found that Sacred Texts largely feature male Gods and prophets such as Muhammad from Islam or
Moses from the Christianity religions. The texts also have stories that are anti-female stereotyped such as
Eve in the Christianity religion being the cause of humanity’s fall from Eden.
• · Religious laws and customs give women fewer rights than men such as how many spouses they can marry,
dress codes and decision making choices. In some Muslim religions, women have to cover up their body
completely. Such customs are likely to benefit men who can marry more than one wife in some religions and
make decisions that women must obey. (Woodhead)
• Woodhead- She found how religious laws and customs give women fewer rights than men.
For example, some males can marry more than 1 partner. Women are also given less power in
decision making and have strict dress codes. In some Muslim religions, many women have to
cover up their body completely.
• Jean Holm- She did studies to find that women are segregated at places of worship. They are
placed in non-important locations of these institutions therefore showing the devaluation of
them in contemporary religion. (Limits on female participitation)
• Armstrong- She sees how organisations are male dominated. This is because such religions
like Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women to become priests. Therefore this shows
evidence of marginalisation.
• El Saadawi- The sociologist explained the theory of how patriarchal society creates patriarchal
religion. Patriarchy influenced and re-shaped religious ideas since the last few 100 years. The
sociologist argues that religion is not the direct cause of women’s subordination. Men for
instance reinterpreted religious beliefs in a way that favoured patriarchy.
Assignment 1

1 ‘Religion supports the interests of the rich and powerful.’

Evaluate this view. [35]