Soil Test and Survey

CHAPTER Under the Stoke's Law, “Z7ie rate of settlement of solid

SOIL TEST AND SURVEY
4-1 Test for Particle Size
Different soil has different characteristics affecting the per-
formance of each individual soil by moisture content and den-
sity. There are several kinds of physical tests that have been
developed to measure soil performance issued and recom-
mended by AASHTO and ASTM. (See Transportation Materi-
als Part 1 and II Tests or Interim Tests Methods by AASHTO).
The Sieve Analysis is the process being used to detemdne
the particle sizes of gravel and fine aggregates. A sample of the
material is thoroughly dried and shaken through series of
sieves ranging from coarse to fine. The amount on each
sieve is weighed and recorded. The AASHTO standard
sieve sizes for soil aggregates are presented as follows:
through a given liquid or gas is proportional to the square of
the diameters of the solid.” The AASHTO method as specified
is called Hydrometer Test AASHTO designation 1-88.
iiydrometer Test
Sample of the material passing No.10 sieve is mixed
thoroughly with water and dispersing agent that dissipate
any electrolytic bonds in the sample that might cause
flocculation and accelerate settlement.
2. Afier 12 hours, the mixture is agitated making all parti-
cles suspended in water.
3. The mixture is then placed in a graduated flask, allowing
the solid to settle under the pull of gravity.
4. The bigger particles settle first, followed by the smaller
then the smallest one. The specific gravity of the
liquid decreases. The changes are recorded by special
hydrome- ter and read at prescribed intervals.
5. Change in specific gravity is related to the grain size of
the material by Stoke's law.
6. Careful control of temperature and other possible variable is
strictly observed to obtain satisfactory test results.

Sieve No. 2 1 1/2 1 3/4 3/8 4-2 Test to Evaluate the Effect of Moisture
in Inches 4 10 40 200
By Number Consistency of the soil varies from semi solid to plastic
Opening in 50 37.5 25.0 19.0 9.50 4.75 then, to liquid if water content is increased.
millimeter 2.0 .425 .075
1. The Liquid Limit Test
Source: AASHTO Designation T-27; M92 and ASTM Desig. E-11
The AASHTO designation T-89 on liquid limit signifies the
percentage of moisture at which the sample changes by de-
Material finer than No. 200 sieve (.075 mm) is not feasible creasing the water from liquid to plastic state. When the sam-
in determining the particle sizes. Instead, these are detemiined ple is wet than the liquid limit, a grooved sample of the soil
by observing the rate at which the grainy settle through liquid in a cup will flow when lightly jarred 25 times. On the
or other hand, if the sample is jarred at the liquid limit, water
separates
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 Elements of Roads and Highways
the soil particles just wide enough to remrive the soil mass
shearing strength. Several tests on each sample are required to
reach the moisture content wherein the groove in the sample is
required to close at exactly 25 blows.
2. The Plastic Limit Test
AASHTO Designation T-90 signifies the percentage of
moisture wherein the sample changes with lowering
wetness from plastic to semi-solid condition. At this stage, the
soil mor- tar starts to crumble when rolled trite threads 1/8”
diameter. Additional water will make the soil plastic, but
sands are non- plastic material that its non-plastic limit cannot
be determined.
3. The Plastic Index Text
AASHTt1 Designation T- 91 is defined as the numerical
dif- ference between its liquid limit and its plastic limit. It is
also referred to as the percentage of dry weight. In some
combina- tion, it measures:
a) The Oneness and shapes of the soil particles.
b) The interplay of the attractive forces tending to hold
the clay mineral flakes together.
c) The thickness and velocity of the water film and,
d) The quantity and electrical charges of the cations.
For coarse grain soil or fine grain soil with few particles
of clay of colloidal size, small increase of water above the
plastic limit will cause particles separation, destroying the
attractive forces that provide shearing strength. It simply
means that, the difference between the plastic limit and the
liquid limit is small, so that the plastic index is also small.
On the contrary, for a soil that is high in clay or
colloids, more water will be required before the attractive
forces are overcome, and the strength of the mass is
destroyed. In this case, the plasticity index is numerically high.
08
Soil Test and Survey
Experienced road builders use the Plastic Index as one
con- trol in selecting the materials for under pavement. A
common base course materials specified, requires the plastic
index not to exceed 6 while others insist on not greater than
3. Soils with high plasticity indices are much less acceptable
for sub-grade in base course.
4. The Shrinkage Test
Shrinkage test measures the changes in volume and
weight that occur as partly mixture of soil and water (except
sieve No. 40). Sample is dried from the near liquid limit
to constant
weight of 110 C. The results are stated in terms of
shrinkage limit, volumetric change, and lineal shrinkage.
Higher value of shrinkage factor showed that the soil
will give more trouble and problem. The volume of a certain
soil increases when it absorbs water. Soils that are suitable for
sub- grade and base course are those that expand very little
when moistened. And those that swell more are considered
as poor materials. A common soil specimen requires
volume change limit of 1% for base coarse materials.
5. Stand Feel Test
Experienced soil Engineer employ the “hand feel test” to
approximately predict the plasticity index of the soil. The test
may include:
a) Thread toughness at moisture content
approximating the plastic limit.
b) The air-dried strength.
c) Dilatancy
Soil mortar possessing high plastic index will produce
tough threads and high strength without dilatancy.
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 Elements of Roads and Highways
On the other hand, soils having low Plastic Index (PI)
will react in an opposite manner. Skilled soil technician could
on the basis of this test predict the Plastic Index with standard
error of about 1% percent.
Clean sand with some rocks and certain other materials
are classified as non-plastic materials because they cannot be
rolled into threads as required in determining the plastic limit.
As a iule:
1. Non-plastic soils are excellent type of road
materials when properly confined under
wearing course.
2. A well graded rock dust form hard durable surface
when
wet and compacted.
3. Clean sand displace easily under load and their use
as fill or base course create problems, but they may
haveEquivalent
6. Sand other desirable
Test feature such as facilitating sub-
surface drainage.
AASHTO Designation T-176 is for field determination of
the presence of undesirable quantities of clay-like materials in
soil. Aggregate mixture is based on the volume, rather than
on weight. The sand equivalent is the ratio between the
height of the sand column (laboratory experiment test) and the
combined height of sand and expanded saturated clay
expressed in per- centage. Higher values of sand equivalent
indicate superior ma- terials. The allowable moving average
value from the California Specification is 21 for sub base, 31
for aggregate base and 45- 50 for aggregates of various type
asphalt concrete and 76 for concrete sand.
4-3 Density Test of SoiI
The Density of soil or weight per cubic foot varies with
the peculiarities of the soil itself, the moisture content, and
the compacted device plus the method of their use. The
standard
110
Soif Test and Survey
weight of soil per cubic foot cannot be fixed, but should be de-
tennined in particular instance.
The Main Variables in the Soil Proper are:
1. Specific Gravity of the soil particles that may
2.0 to 3.3 that is normally between 2.5 and 2.8.
2.
Particle Size distribution of the soil. A mass C OSŒÎOÊ
entirely sphères of one size in the densest possible condi-
tÎonsphère
will colltain 75% solid and 25% VoidS. The smaller
the in the mass tlie higher the perceritage of the
SOlÎd, hence, particle size distribution jjjgy {jy q , g ,
3. Grain Shape ofsoil Particles. ShdzJ2 angular particles will
resist shifting from loose to a t&Î State. Flaky
par- they are dif-
ticles in soil will decrease its defisity because
ficult to
compact.
4-4 Laboratory Test for Soil Density
Test for density may be divided into two.
1. Laboratory test to set standard for density. 2.
Field test tO measure the density of soil in-placed on the
roadway.
Laboratory tests may be subdivided the
basis of compactionprocedures.
1. Static test.
2. Dynamic or impact test.
3.
Tamping foot or kneading compaction test.
Test is deteimining the maximum density of soil
sample in the laboratory. A sample of about 5000 grams of soil
containing a specified percentage of water is placed in a cylin-
der mold 6 inches -&ameter and 8 inches
high.
 Elements of Roads and Highways Soil Test and Survey

The sample is then compressed under a load of 2000 circle. About 25% of the specimen is covered in each applica-
pounds per square inch applied at the speed of 0.05 inch tiOR. COmpaction is through kneading action in contrast with
per minute. When the maximum load is reached, it is held for the static pressure or impact test
a period of 1 minute and then, gradually released from the
known dry weight of the soil. The mold diameter and the 4-5 Field Density Test of Soil in Place
height diy density of the sample are computed. Several
samples are compressed to de- lineate the peak of the Field density test is the means of comparing the density
moisture density. This peak value repre- seiits the standard. with the laboratory results. The comparison is performed on
the basis of relative compaction defined as follows:
Dynamic or Imp«a r « › . Samples of soils each coirtainlng
a designated percentage of water are compacted in layers Relative Compaction = Dry wt. / cv ft. of soil in the roadway structure
into molds of specified size. The sample is compacted by Dr/wt./cu. ft. of soil sampe a wtimum
applying a number of blows from a ”tree failing hammer of moisture
prescribed di- mension and weight with flat circular face. content compacted in standafd manner.
The peak of mois- ture density value represents the
Relativc compaction is the only measure by which the ac-
standard density. The AASHTO tests may be applied on
that portion of the soil which will pass No. 4 sieve or all that ceptability of a completed road+ray structure is measured.
passes 'Z‹” sieve. Field Density and Moisture Content by Sampling
TABLE 4-1 DETAILS OF DYNAMIC COMPACTION TEST
The manners of determining relative compaction by sam-
NAME OF TESTS
pling are as follows:
AASBTO •*Modified California
Test Details Standard AASHTO Impact 1.
Obtain samples of the compacted materials to be tested at
Diameter of Mold (inches) 4 to 6 4 to 6 2.86 full depth.
Height of Sample (inches) 5 cut to 4.58 5 cut to 4.58 10-12 2.
Find the wet and dry weight of the sample, then,
Number of Lifts 3 5 5 deter-
Blows per Lift 25 to 56 25 to 56 20 3 mine the
the volume
its moisture
Determine of sample in the fill by finding
content.
Weight of Hammer lbs. 5.5 10 10 weight of materials required to fill the space.
Diameter of compacting 4. From the dry weight of the sample and the volume that it
Surface (inches) 2 2 2 occupies in the fill, find the drv weight per cubic foot.
Free fall distance (inches) 12 18 18 5. Find the relative compaction of the soil in fi11 by
Volume, net in cubic ft. 1/30 or 1/13.33 1/30 orl/13.33 Varies dividing
its dry weight per cubic foot by the laboratory standard
*AASHTO Designation T-99 •• AASHTO Designation T-180 dmsity.
T'arnping Foot or Kneading Compact Test. The material is There are four factors that affect the accuracy of measuring
fed into a rotating mold and compacted by several relative density, they are:
repetitive loads applied through tamping shoe shaped like a 1. Change in the soil itself.
sector of the
 Elements of Roads and Soil Test and Survey
Highways
2. The sampling methods. Load of test specimen at 0.1 in piston penetration
3. The accuracy of laboratory testing for smdard density. GRB = Load carried by standard crushed rocks
4. The accuracy of testing field density. based on 0.1 inch piston penetration

4-6 The Strength Test

Soil tests to determine the strength of soil is classified
into:
l. Test for load carrying capacity, rate, and amount of con-
solidation in soils that support the foundation. (This is
applicable to bridge foundation). STEP - 1 COMPACT BY STATIC STEP - 2 GRAPH AND FIND
PRESSURE OR BY IMPACT MAX IMU M DENSITY
2. Test to measure the supporting power of disturbed soils
as compacted under standard procedures.

California Bearing Ratio Method (CBR)

The California Bearing Ratio Method (CBR) combines a

load deformation test performed in the laboratory with an
em- pirical design chart to determine the thickness of pavement
base and other layers. The tests are briefly conducted as
STEP - 3 SOAK IN WATER S T E P - 4 APPLY LOAD
follows:
1. The disturbed soil samples at different moisture
content are compacted in 3 layers by static loading
or impact hammer into a cylinder mold 6 inches FIGURE 4-1 LABORATORY PROCEDURES IN FINDING CBR OF SOIL
diameter by 8 inches high. The specimen depth is
about 5 inches. The The £tVEEM Stabilometer Method
5.5 pounds hammer AASHTO standard density test is
used in the impact method. This method measures the horizontal pressure developed
2. The moisture density curve is plotted. The sample with in a short cylinder sample loaded venically on its end.
greatest dry density is chosen. Stabilometer Operating Procedures.
3. The specimen in the mold is immersed in water for
four days to allow saturation. Expansion of the specimen 1. Four different samples are prepared on a short
is re- corded. cylinder about 4 inches diameter by 2 /z inches high of
differer.t known moisture contents.
4. A small piston of 3 inches diameter is forced into the 2. Compaction is done using tamping foot or kneading
con- fined specimen. Load deformation data is com- pactor.
recorded. The California Bearing Ratio is computed as
follows:
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 Elements of Roads and Highways Soil Test and Survey

3. Each compacted specimen inside the mold is Stabilometer J'est

compressed until water exudes from it and pass several
electric cir- cuits wired in parallel through the base plate After the expansion test, the specimen is enclosed in a flexi-
of the exuda- tion measuring devices.
ble sleeve and placed inside the stabilometer. Vertical pressure is
applied slowly at speed of 0.05 inch per minute until it
Head of testing machine reaches 160 psi. The developed horizontal pressure is reduced
Follower for applying
load to specimen to 5 psi using the displacement pump. The turns of displace-
ure the penetration of the flexible diaphragm into the intersec-
Neddle valve
Manually operated tion
ment of the needed to bring the horizontal pressure to 100 psi is
pump
Air chamber
Pressure screw type pump sample.
determined. This displacement procedure is intended to meas-
gauge

Liquid under sm all initial pressure

Loading piston
Diaphrag m
Liquid y Lo d cell leads
Plate of testing m achine Cell pressure inlet

Load S a m p l e cap

FIGURE 4-2 DIAGRAM OF THE HVEEM STABILOtdETER Porous stone

Displacem ent t r ans ducer Sample membrane
Chamber
Clamps fof
It was found out after several tests that soils in displacement Specimen
transducer
underlying pavements exceeded moisture under pressure of
about 300 psi. lt appears that soaking did not produce a
condition of certain fine grain materials. In effect, the
exudation pressure is a differ- ent means in determining the
Vacuum
moisture contents of the soil on the roadway. Moisture inlet
Vacuum
saturation
@[splacem I n t
transducer inlet
content in stabilometer test samples is set to bracket the 300 inlet

psi. value on which design was based.

Test for Expansion Pressure
FIGURE 4-3 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF DYNAMIC MODULUS TESTS
Aner exudation test while sample is still in the mold, it is
tested for expansion pressure. A perforated brass plate is The resistance value R of the soil is‘ computed by the
placed on the sample and covered with water for 16-20 hours. fol- lowing formula:
Expan- sion during this period is prevented, and the pressure
that pre- vents it is measured. As mentioned earlier, soils that R = 100 - 100
expanded due to the presence of water should be placed 2.5 Pv — 1 + 1
under sufficient weight of fil1 to prevent swelling. Ph

116 11
7
 Elements of Roads and Highways Soil Test and Survey

Where: It was found that the modulus of asphalt concrete ranges

R — Resistance from 100,000 to 1,000,000 psi, depending upon the
value tempera- ture. For cement treated base, from 500,000 to
Pv = Vertical pressure (160 psi) 3,000,000 psi.. For aggregate base and sub base from 10,000
D = Turns displacement reading to 50,000 psi., and for fine grain aggregate soil, 1,500 to
(approx. from 2 to 5) 50,000 psi, depending upon the water content.
Ph — Horizontal pressure in psi
Loading piston
at Pv of 160 psi
Tri-Axial Design Method
Bearing plate
This method is used by some agencies for compression tests Sam ple
Transducer yoke , Lead to recorder
(see AASHTO Designation T-234). In open system tri-axial
test, lateral pressure is held constant releasing from the con- Lead to recorder Displaces ent transducer

tainer as increased load causes the sample to expand laterally. Load cell
Screw clamps
Reaction and displacement
Dist acement .* continuously recorded to fasten yoke to s a m p l e
applied
FIGURE 45 SCHF-.MATIC DIAGRAM OF DIAMETRICAL TEST

Constant supply of pressure

Nuclear Devices Test
One of 3 tie rods t
Impervious bearing plate
Recently, Nuclear Devices for determining in-place densi-
Sam pl e, ties and moisture contents are used. The gauge readings are eas-
Rubber mem brane
ily converted to density and prevent moisture using calibration
P ervious disk curves or microprocessors. The portable device is either the
Lucile cylinder transmission, or bac'‹ scatter type.

The transmission type measures density and moisture con-

FIGURE 4-4 TRIAXIAL TEST tent for any depth up to 25 centimeters. The back scatter
device is placed directly on top of the soil layer or slightly
FIGURE 44 TRI-AXIAL TEST above it to provide an air gap between the instrument and
soil surfacc. It measures density and moisture content to a
Dynamic Modulus depth of 3 to 4 inches. Nuclear device overcomes
construction delay where samples could be taken while
construction equipment is operat- ing. The Nuclear device
Re-compacted or undisturbed samples are tested to deter- travels over the fill at about 4.5 kilome- ters per hour and
mine the influence of temperature, degree of saturation, density, continuously recording the density and mois- ture content.

and age on the dynamic response of pavement materials

 Soil J'est and Survey
Elements of Roads and Highways
1. Identification of soil types from: geological and agricul-
Gamma photon detector tural soil maps, aerial photographs, and other sources.
Instrument
2. Investigation of ground water conditions, examining ex-
Soil surface
isting roadway cuts and other excavations.
— T ransin itted photon 3. Review of the design and construction procedures, and
Compton scattered photon present condition of roads that traverse the area.
4. Soil exploration along the right of way using auger boring
mamma pnoton and test pile. Sampling should be at frequent intervals to
source
fix the boundaries of each soil types.
5. Test holes should extend to a significant depth below the
FIGURE 4-6 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF NUCLEAR DEVICES sub-grade elevation with recommended minimum
TRANSMISSION TYPE
depth.
6. The location, nature of the ground, origin of parent mate-
rials, landform and agricultural soil name, should
Gamma photon be re-
Gam m a photon - detector
corded.
so free
7. Each soil layer is described according to thickness, fixture
Int u ent” Soil s ur f ace
structure, organic content, relation contents and cementa-
tion. The depth of seepage zones of free water table and
Path of gamma photons bedrocks are also recorded.
(com pton scattering)
8. The soil profile along the roadway centerline showing lo-
cation or test hole range of soil profile characteristics for
FIGURE 4-7 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF NUCLEAR DEVICES each with
Along district
thesoil
firsttype is plotted. and preliminary location
reconnaissance
BACK SCATTER TYPE survey. The highway agencies make a detailed study of the fol-
lowing data.
4-7 Soil Survey
1. The vertical and horizontal location of the proposed con-
struction.
The preliminary soil investigation is an integral part of
2. Location and evaluation of suitable borrow and
highway reconnaissance and preliminary location survey. In construc- tion materials.
3. Need for the type of sub-grade or embankment founda-
fixing the position of the roadway, the following should be
tion treatment and drainage.
1. into
taken Soil accounts:
conditions. 4. Right of way. 4. Need for special excavation and dewatering techniques.
2. Directncss of the route 5. Neighborhood disruption. 5. Development of detailed sub-surface investigations
o. Topography 6. Environmental consideration for specific structures.
6. Investigation of slope stability in both outs and
The early please of soil survey is the collection of informa- embank-
tion gathered from the following: ment.
121
 Elements of Roads and Highways

Refraction Seismic Method CHAPTER

A geophysical method used for sub-surface
exploration called refraction seismic method relies on the
principle that, the speed of shock travelling through the earth ROAD MATERIALS
surface varies, de- pending upon the kind of materials. Shock
waves travel through light loose soils at approximately 180
meters per second, and 6,000 meter per second on dense and 5-1 Aggregates
solid rock.
If the earth's crust is of uniform material for some depth, Aggregates intended for either Bitumiiious (asphalt) or
these time intervals are proportional to the distance from the Port- land cement concrete pavement, should be of good
origin of explosion. If the surface layer is of harder denser qualtty in accordance with the requirements of AASHTO
ma- terial, the time interval to a distant poin* is shortened. The standard or Item
shock waves travel beneath the denser material along its -703 of the Department of Public Works and Highways
specifi-
upper mar- g“m, and then returned to the recording instrument.
cations which generally
“The aggregates providesofthat:
shall consist hard durable particles or
The records f‹ir the time of wave travel against the fragments of crushed stone, crushed slag, or crushed rock or
shooting distance, the number and thickness of the different natural gravel.”
underlying layers, including the depth to bedrock can be Aggregates to be classified as good quality, must
prcdicted. This test is useful in determining the depth of the undergo various test enumerated as follows:
rock but could be deceivi.eg on roughly tilted stratified
materials. 1. Test for strength.
The refraction method was developed for exploration 2. Test for soundness.
of underground conditions of roadway cuts. The shock 3. Test for affinity and swell.
wave is obtained by striking a 6 inches square steel plate 4. Test for shape and texture.
with 4 kilo- gram.s sledged hammer. The test is done by 5. Test for resistance to
applying direct cur- rent to flow through the soil between polishing.
two other supply elec- trodes placed immediately at the 6. Degradation test.
third points. The resistivity changes where depth is produced, Test for strength
recording the results at vari- ous electrode spacing.
The criterion for aggregate strength test is the Los
This method is somewhat reliable although sometimes it Angeles Rattler Test (AASHTO T-96) briefly conducted as
can not be totally depended on regarding the information as follows:
to the presence of solid rock. It is useful in area exploration 1. Rattler test is done in a hollow cylinder closed at
when it is used to find localized sand and gravel deposits. both ends. The cylinder measures 70 centimeters inside
diame- ter by 50 centimeters long provided with steel
shelf pro- jecting radially inward 3 U inches mounted
with its axis horizontally on stub shaft and fastened at
the ends.
122 123