STRUCTURE OF ATOM

SUB ATOMIC PARTICLES

DISCOVERY OF SUB – ATOMIC
PARTICLES
The discovery of subatomic particles revolutionized our understanding of the fundamental building blocks of matter. In the
early 20th century, scientists such as J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, and James Chadwick made significant contributions to
this field. Thomson's experiments with cathode rays led to the identification of the electron in 1897, marking the first
subatomic particle discovery. Rutherford's gold foil experiment in 1911 provided evidence for the existence of a dense,
positively charged nucleus at the center of an atom. Chadwick's discovery of the neutron in 1932 completed the trio of
subatomic particles, revealing that the atomic nucleus contained neutral particles in addition to protons. These breakthroughs
laid the foundation for modern atomic theory and opened the door to further exploration of the subatomic world.
Atomic models
Atomic number-Atomic number refers to the number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom. It is a
fundamental property of an element and is denoted by the symbol Z.

Atomic mass- Atomic mass refers to the mass of an atom, typically measured in atomic mass units (amu). It is a
property that represents the total mass of the atom, taking into account the combined masses of its protons, neutrons,
and electrons

Isotopes-Isotopes are variants of an element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons in their atomic nuclei.

RUTHERFORD’S GOLDFOIL EXPERIMENT:-

 In 1911, Ernest Rutherford conducted a groundbreaking experiment known as the gold foil experiment, which
revolutionized our understanding of atomic structure. Rutherford aimed to investigate the distribution of
positive charge within an atom by bombarding a thin gold foil with alpha particles (positively charged
particles). According to the prevailing "plum pudding" model proposed by J.J. Thomson, atoms were thought to
be composed of a positively charged sphere with embedded electrons.
 To Rutherford's surprise, some alpha particles were deflected at large angles, and a few even bounced back in
the direction from which they came. This unexpected observation led Rutherford to conclude that the atom's
positive charge was concentrated in a tiny, dense nucleus at the center, while the majority of the atom was
empty space. He compared this phenomenon to firing a cannonball at a piece of tissue paper and having it
bounce back.
 Wave nature of electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation exhibits wave-like behavior, as described by the wave nature of light.
Electromagnetic radiation includes a wide range of phenomena, such as visible light, radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, ultraviolet
radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.
According to the wave model, electromagnetic radiation consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that propagate through space.
These fields are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, forming transverse waves.
Key characteristics of electromagnetic waves include wavelength (λ), frequency (ν), and speed (c).
The wavelength represents the distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in the wave, while the frequency indicates the number of
wave cycles occurring per unit time.
The speed of electromagnetic radiation is constant and is approximately equal to 3 x 10^8 meters per second in a vacuum, denoted as 'c.'
The relationship between wavelength, frequency, and speed is given by the equation: c = λν, where c is the speed of light.
This equation shows that as the wavelength increases, the frequency decreases, and vice versa.
The wave nature of electromagnetic radiation has profound implications in various fields, including optics, telecommunications, astronomy,
and quantum mechanics.
It explains phenomena such as interference, diffraction, polarization, and the wave-particle duality of light.
 Particle nature of
electromangnetic radiation:
Plank’s quantum theory
 The particle nature of electromagnetic radiation is explained by Max Planck's quantum theory, which
revolutionized our understanding of light and energy. Planck proposed that electromagnetic radiation is
not purely wave-like but also exhibits particle-like behavior in certain situations.

 According to Planck's theory, energy is quantized and can only be emitted or absorbed in discrete packets,
which he called "quanta" or "energy quanta." The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to the
frequency of the electromagnetic radiation.
 This relationship is expressed by Planck's equation: E = hν, where E is the energy of a quantum, h is
Planck's constant (approximately 6.626 x 10^-34 joule-seconds), and ν is the frequency of the radiation.

 Planck's quantum theory provided an explanation for the observed phenomenon of blackbody radiation,
which could not be fully understood using classical wave theory. It also laid the foundation for Albert
Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect, which demonstrated that light behaves as discrete particles
called photons.

 The particle-like nature of electromagnetic radiation, as described by Planck's quantum theory, led to the
development of quantum mechanics and the understanding that particles, such as photons, can exhibit
wave-particle duality. This theory has had profound implications in fields such as atomic and nuclear
physics, quantum optics, and the understanding of the fundamental nature of matter and energy.
Bohr model of hydrogen atom
 The particle nature of electromagnetic radiation is explained by Max Planck's quantum theory,
which revolutionized our understanding of light and energy. Planck proposed that
electromagnetic radiation is not purely wave-like but also exhibits particle-like behavior in
certain situations.
 According to Planck's theory, energy is quantized and can only be emitted or absorbed in
discrete packets, which he called "quanta" or "energy quanta." The energy of each quantum is
directly proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation. This relationship is
expressed by Planck's equation: E = hν, where E is the energy of a quantum, h is Planck's
constant (approximately 6.626 x 10^-34 joule-seconds), and ν is the frequency of the
radiation.
 Planck's quantum theory provided an explanation for the observed phenomenon of blackbody
radiation, which could not be fully understood using classical wave theory. It also laid the
foundation for Albert Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect, which demonstrated that
light behaves as discrete particles called photons.
De Broglie equation
 as the photon has momentum as well as
 wavelength, electrons should also have
 momentum as well as wavelength, de Broglie,
 from this analogy, gave the following relation
 between wavelength (l) and momentum (p) of
 a material particle.
Toward Quantum mechanical
model of atom
 The development of the quantum mechanical model of the atom built
upon the foundations laid by the Bohr model and marked a significant
advancement in our understanding of atomic structure. Key contributors
to the quantum mechanical model include Louis de Broglie, Erwin
Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, and others.
 Louis de Broglie proposed the concept of wave-particle duality,
suggesting that particles like electrons could exhibit wave-like properties.
This idea was supported by experimental evidence and led to the
understanding that electrons could be described by wavefunctions.
 Erwin Schrödinger formulated the wave equation, known as the
Schrödinger equation, which describes the behavior of quantum particles,
including electrons. The equation incorporates the wave nature of
particles and allows for the calculation of the probability distribution of
finding an electron in a specific region around the nucleus.
 The quantum mechanical model does not describe electrons as orbiting
the nucleus in fixed paths, as in the Bohr model. Instead, it introduces the
concept of atomic orbitals, which are three-dimensional regions where the
probability of finding an electron is high. These orbitals are characterized
by various quantum numbers, including the principal quantum number
(n), azimuthal quantum number (l), magnetic quantum number (m), and
spin quantum number (s).
 The model also introduced the uncertainty principle, proposed by Werner
Heisenberg, which states that it is impossible to simultaneously know the
precise position and momentum of a particle. This principle imposes
fundamental limits on our ability to measure certain properties of particles
accurately.
 The quantum mechanical model successfully explains various atomic
phenomena, such as the discrete energy levels of electrons, the shapes of
atomic orbitals, and the behavior of atoms in chemical reactions. It forms
the foundation of modern atomic and quantum physics and is essential for
understanding the behavior of matter at the atomic and subatomic levels.
Filling of electron in orbital
 The filling of electrons in orbitals follows certain principles based on the quantum
mechanical model of the atom. These principles include the Aufbau principle, the
Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule.
1. Aufbau principle: This principle states that electrons fill the lowest energy orbitals
available first before occupying higher energy orbitals. Electrons enter orbitals in
a specific order based on their increasing energy levels. The order of filling
orbitals follows the pattern of 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, and so on.
2. Pauli exclusion principle: According to this principle, no two electrons in an atom
can have the same set of quantum numbers. This means that each orbital can
accommodate a maximum of two electrons, with their spins (designated as either
up or down) being opposite to each other.
3. Hund's rule: Hund's rule states that when filling orbitals of the same energy level
(such as the p orbitals), electrons occupy separate orbitals with parallel spins
before pairing up. This maximizes the total spin and leads to greater stability.
For example:-
Electronic configuration of atom
 The electronic configuration of an atom refers to the arrangement of
electrons in its various energy levels and orbitals. It is represented using
a notation that indicates the number of electrons in each energy level
and the specific orbitals they occupy. The electronic configuration is
based on the principles of the quantum mechanical model of the atom.
 The electronic configuration follows the Aufbau principle, which states
that electrons fill the lowest energy levels first before occupying higher
energy levels. The filling pattern follows a specific order:
 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, and so on.
 Each energy level has a certain number of orbitals and can hold a
specific number of electrons:
• The s sublevel has 1 orbital and can hold up to 2 electrons.
• The p sublevel has 3 orbitals and can hold up to 6 electrons.
• The d sublevel has 5 orbitals and can hold up to 10 electrons.
• The f sublevel has 7 orbitals and can hold up to 14 electrons.
 For example, the electronic configuration of oxygen (atomic number 8)
is 1s² 2s² 2p⁴. This indicates that oxygen has two electrons in the 1s
orbital, two electrons in the 2s orbital, and four electrons in the 2p
orbital.