LASER CUTTING

1. Laser cutting methods

Dr Olivier Allegre
 1.1. Vaporisation cutting (drilling)

• Laser beam heats the material to boiling temperature.

The laser-material interaction is Fresnel absorption.

• Melt and vapour are produced, which increases

absorptivity.

• Keyhole (opening) forms within work-piece material.

This is due to the high vapour pressure. The keyhole
formation further enhances beam absorption.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • Material removed as vapour or ejected molten material.
• Shroud gas (N2, He, Ar, …) is used to help remove molten material
through cut kerf bottom opening.

Laser beam
Shroud gas
Vapour
flow
Keyhole

Workpiece

Melt

Ejected vapour / Re-solidified

molten debris material

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • A nozzle is used to provide high pressure shroud gas.
• Nozzle exit diameter < 1mm.
• Nozzle opening coaxial to optical axis of laser beam.
• Shroud gas protects optics from contamination from metal vapour

Focusing lens

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • Relative motion work-piece / laser beam produces cut
• Striations and recast molten material affect cut quality
• Higher ratio vaporized/molten material improves quality

Relative motion of
the work-piece Stainless steel 304

1mm

Ti

200μm

Dr Olivier Allegre
 •Typical pressure generated: 4x106 N/m2 = 40 bars (atmospheric pressure=1bar).
Thus high vapour pressure helps to eject melt and form hole.

pVc = nRT
Vc: volume of vapour R: gas constant T: temperature
p: pressure n: number of moles

•Typical vapour velocity: 103 m/s, supersonic shock wave.

Bernouilli's equation: V 2
p 
2

V: speed of vapour
p: pressure

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • Power density required: >107 W/cm2

• Laser type: YAG, Excimer, CO2 or Fibre lasers.

• Suitable materials: Better for non-conductive materials or metals < 1.5 mm thick.

• Process (shroud) gas: N2, He, Ar. Helps to remove molten material through kerf
bottom opening. Typical gas pressure: 10-20bars. Too high gas pressure >20 bars
will cool the cut zone, increasing conduction losses and producing larger heat
affected zone.

• Disadvantage: High energy requirement and low efficiency compared with other
cutting methods.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 1.2. Fusion cutting - melt and blow
• Same type nozzle/work-piece configuration as vaporisation cutting, but with
lower power density.
• The laser heats material to melting temperature (significantly lower than
boiling temperature !) through Fresnel absorption.
• Using high pressure inert or non-reactive gas (provided from nozzle coaxial
to laser beam) to blow the melt out through bottom opening of cut kerf.
• A hole piercing is required to initiate the cut.
• Very low HAZ (Heat Affected Zone) and clean cut.
Laser beam
Shroud
gas flow
Keyhole

Workpiece

Melt
Ejected molten Re-
debris solidified
Dr Olivier Allegre material
 • Power density: lower than vaporisation cutting ; dependent on
materials. Minimum to cause melt.

• Suitable materials: Thanks to the use of inert gases, this process is

compatible with oxidation sensitive materials (e.g. Ti alloy and
stainless steels !), as well as flammable materials (e.g. Perspex) and
non-metallic materials.

• Process Gases: The function of the gas is to blow the laser generated
molten materials through the cut kerf bottom opening, as well as
protect the processed material from oxidation.
• N2, He, Ar can be used.
• Pressure: 10-20 Bar. Higher gas pressure will cool the cut zone,
producing larger heat affected zone. Lower gas pressure will not be
sufficient to blow the molten materials away.

• Advantages: *Higher efficiency than vaporisation method (although

not as efficient than the reactive fusion cutting).
*Very low HAZ (Heat Affected Zone) and clean cut
Dr Olivier Allegre
 1.3. Reactive gas fusion cutting

• Same configuration of nozzle/work-piece as fusion cutting, but with lower

power density. The laser beam heats the material to melting temperature,
in the same way as with conventional fusion cutting. The interaction is
Fresnel absorption.

• Using high pressure reactive gas (O2), coaxial to laser beam to blow out
the molten material.

• O2 reacts with work-piece material:

Fe + ½ O2  FeO + 3.43 kJ/g

3Fe + 2 O2  Fe3O4+ 1.29 kJ/g

• This exothermic reaction provides additional energy for the cutting

process (can be as high as the energy input from laser beam)
Dr Olivier Allegre
 • Laser: CO2 , YAG or fibre laser. 200-20 kW CW.

• Suitable materials: Fe based (e.g. mild steel, carbon steels).

• Gas pressure: O2 : 1-10 Bar. Higher gas pressure will cause excessive
side burning, producing larger Heat Affected Zone. Lower gas pressure
will lead to lower process efficiency.

• Gas purity requirement: high purity required (99.9%). A lower purity

will reduce efficiency of cutting due to reduced degree of reaction

• Cutting capability: thickness up to 25mm; speed up to 0.5 m/s.

• Advantage: Energy efficiency can be doubled compared to inert gas

fusion cutting.

• Disadvantage: Not compatible with oxidation sensitive materials (e. g.

stainless steel). Produces larger Heat Affected Zones, more dross and
striations than conventional fusion cutting.
Dr Olivier Allegre Note: 1 bar = 100 kN/m2
 1.4. Controlled fracture cutting
• Principle: uses thermal stress to induce cracks in material. Requires
small laser spot (<0.5mm diameter). Sometimes uses liquid or gas to
quickly cool material after laser heating and enhance thermal cracking.

• Suitable materials: brittle materials, prone to

thermal fracture (glass, ceramics, silicon wafer).

• Power density: <104 W/cm2.

• Efficiency: high due to very low power requirements.

• Issues: controlling the cracks in closed cutting paths (i.e. when the
laser spot comes back to its starting point) or if the cut path includes
angles; avoiding melt edges

Dr Olivier Allegre
 Controlled Fracture Cutting Rates

Material Thickness (mm) Spot Diameter Laser Power Cutting speed (m/s)
(mm) (W)

Alumina ceramic 0.7 0.4 7 0.3

(99% Al2O3) 1.0 0.4 16 0.1

Soda Glass 1.0 0.5x13 10 0.3

Sapphire 1.2 0.4 12 0.1

Quartz (crystal) 0.8 0.4 3 0.6

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • Chip-free Diode Laser Cutting of Glass – diode laser
Diode laser cutting CO2 laser cutting

S.Nisar, M.A.Sheikh,L.Li and S.Safdar, Optics and Laser Technology,41(3), 2009, pp318-
327.

• Crack-free laser cutting of ceramic (Al2O3) – 1 kW fibre laser

Y.Yan, L.Li et al, International

Journal of Machine Tools and
Manufacture, 51, 2011, pp859-870

Dr Olivier Allegre
 1.5. Cold Cutting

• Principle: UV photons (produced from an excimer laser source) break carbon bonds
within target material, using short pulses with high peak power and high peak
intensity. The interaction is photo-chemical absorption.

• Suitable materials: organic and carbon based materials (polymers, diamond, etc…).

• Process speed: slow, with <1μm thickness removal for each pulse of laser. Pulse
energy of over 1J with nano- and pico-second
200m
pulse length.

Laser scribing synthetic diamond

(PhotoScribe Laser Technologies)

Dr Olivier Allegre
 1.6. Comparison of relative energy consumption with
different cutting methods
Method Relative Energy

1. Vaporisation cutting 40

2. Fusion cutting 20

3. Reactive gas cutting 10

4. Controlled fracture 1
cutting
5. “Cold cutting” 1

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2. Cutting process parameters
2.1. Severance energy
• Heat balance equation:   P  w  t h  V    (C p  T  L f  m'Lv )
P : laser power (J/s)
: beam coupling coefficient
w : average kerf width (m)
th : materials thickness (m)
V : cutting speed (m/s)
ρ : material density (kg/m3)
Cp : heat capacity (J/kg.K)
ΔT : temperature rise to cause melt (K)
w
Lf : latent heat of fusion (J/kg)
m' : fraction of melt vaporised
Lv : latent heat of vaporisation (J/kg)

• To find cutting process parameters for a specific material:

P 
 w (C p  T  L f  m'Lv )
th V 
P
 const.
th V
• We define severance energy: Es=P/(th.V)
expressed
Dr Olivier Allegre in units of J/mm 2
 • The severance energy helps to quickly identify suitable process parameters for a
known material

• The average severance energies for laser cutting have been found experimentally
(tables are available in specialized literature)

• Example: severance energy for cutting standard metal sheets with CW CO 2 laser:

Material Average P/V.th (J/mm2)

Mild steel + O2 5.7

Mild steel +N2 10
Stainless Steel + O2 5
Stainless Steel + Ar 13
Titanium + O2 3
Titanium + Ar 14

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.2. Speed, power and cutting thickness
The severance energy allows to easily predict the required speed or power
required for cutting the work-piece material:

• We can express speed against thickness:

V=P/(th . Es), thus: V  1/th

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.2. Speed, power and cutting thickness
The severance energy allows to easily predict the required speed or power
required for cutting the work-piece material:

• We can express power/thickness ratio against cutting speed:

P/th = (V . Es), thus: P/th  V

Dr Olivier Allegre
 Cross-section
2.3. Effect of laser power and cutting speed

0.36 m/min
Side-wall
2.3.1. Striation formation (6 mm/s)
•Striation formation on sidewalls is
affected by cutting speed: faster speed
reduces the size (pitch and amplitude) of
striations 0.90 m/min Side-wall

•Example: O2 assisted laser cutting of (15 mm/s)

3mm thick mild steel ; 1.8 m/min produces
smallest striations

1.44 m/min Side-wall

(24 mm/s)

1.80 m/min Side-wall

Dr Olivier Allegre (30 mm/s)

 2.3.2. Heat affected zone (HAZ)
•HAZ is affected by cut speed
•Optimum speed reduces the HAZ

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.3.3. Kerf width
•Kerf width increases linearly with laser power Steel

•Kerf width decreases with cutting speed 1mm

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.4. Effect of gas type and pressure:

• Question: which process would you choose to process stainless steel?

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.4. Effect of gas type and pressure:

• Question: which process would you choose to process stainless steel?

• Answer: Fusion cutting using N2, He, or Ar. The purpose of the gas is to
help blow molten material through cut kerf as well as prevent oxidation.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.4. Effect of gas type and pressure:

• Question: which process would you choose to process stainless steel?

• Answer: Fusion cutting using N2, He, or Ar. The purpose of the gas is to
help blow molten material through cut kerf as well as prevent oxidation.

• Typical application of conventional fusion cutting: cutting of stainless

steel or titanium alloys, for example with N2 gas. Note: stainless steel is
not suitable for reactive gas fusion cutting, since O2 will tend to oxidise
the Cr element causing the subsequent corrosion problems. Furthermore,
fusion cutting will be preferred over vaporization cutting, due to its
higher efficiency. Gas pressure requirement: 10-20 bars typically. Lower
pressure will not be sufficient to blow the molten materials away, higher
pressure will cool down the process area, leading to higher conduction
losses and larger heat affected zones. Note that for very thin sheets
(<1mm), lower pressure <10bars will be suitable, due to the low aspect
ratio of the cut kerf.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.4. Effect of gas type and pressure:

• Question: which process would you choose to cut thick (>5mm) mild
steel sheets, knowing the cut parts do not include any small features <1cm?

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.4. Effect of gas type and pressure:

• Question: which process would you choose to cut thick (>5mm) mild
steel sheets, knowing the cut parts do not include any small features <1cm?
• Answer: Reactive gas fusion cutting, with high purity (99.9%) O2 gas is
the recommended process due to its higher process efficiency. Note
however this is not an absolute rule, since the exothermic reaction with O2
gas will increase heat affected zone.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.4. Effect of gas type and pressure:

• Question: which process would you choose to cut thick (>5mm) mild
steel sheets, knowing the cut parts do not include any small features <1cm?
• Answer: Reactive gas fusion cutting, with high purity (99.9%) O2 gas is
the recommended process due to its higher process efficiency. Note
however this is not an absolute rule, since the exothermic reaction with O2
gas will increase heat affected zone.

• Typical applications of reactive gas fusion cutting : cutting of mild

steel. Reactive gas fusion cutting is the preferred option since the reactive
O2 gas provides additional thermal energy through oxidation, thus
improving process efficiency compared with conventional fusion cutting
with inert gas.
O2 gas pressure requirement: 1-10 bars, with 99.9% purity (a lower purity
will reduce process efficiency). Note: too high pressure will burn the
sidewalls of the cut and produce larger heat affected zone; too low pressure
could reduce the efficiency of the process.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.4. Effect of gas type and pressure:

• Case study: which process for cutting

these mild steel sheets?
600x800mm
1mm thickness
5mm wide feature size

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.4. Effect of gas type and pressure:

• Case study: which process for cutting

these mild steel sheets?
600x800mm
1mm thickness
5mm wide feature size

• Answer: conventional fusion cutting,

with N2 gas is the best option here, due to
the 5mm features, which are prone to
thermal damages (HAZ) and oxidation.

Reactive fusion cutting Conventional fusion cutting

with O2 produces HAZ with N2 produces better cut
and oxidation quality without HAZ

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • Too low pressure does not
produce high cutting speed.

Note: 1 kN.m2=0.01 bar

• Reactive gas fusion

cutting could result in
oxidation of stainless steel,
although it provides faster
cut speed. Conventional
fusion cutting with N2 is
the preferred option.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.5. Effect of focal position

• Optimum focal position is below the surface.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.6. Effect of polarisation
• Linear polarised beams tend to produce non-uniform
channels: tilted at an angle, or with varying width
• This is due to the varying angle between the plane of linear
polarization and the cutting direction

Increased width Tilted Narrower width Tilted

Plane of linear
polarization Cutting
direction

• Circular polarised beam is preferred, since it produces

uniform channels, independent of cutting direction
Dr Olivier Allegre
 3. Comparison laser cutting / conventional process
Principal advantages
• Precise: allows micrometer accuracy, with narrow kerf width, low HAZ, smooth cut
side-walls
• High speed: up to meters per second
• Flexible: allows cutting complex 3-D geometries
• Non contact process: no pressure is applied to the work-piece
• Process is independent of material hardness
• In principle, any material can be cut

Disadvantages
• Maximum cutting thickness < 100mm
• Laser safety requirement
• Optics requires expert maintenance

Dr Olivier Allegre
 4. Example applications
• Carpets / fabric / cloth
• Car body prototyping
• Airframe (Ti or Al alloys and Stainless steel)
• Engineering components
• Epoxy based armour plate (defence)
• Furniture
• Printed Circuit Board (electronics)
• Underwater cutting (petrochemical)
• Coronary stent for medical implant (University of Manchester)

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • Case studies come from Laser Ecosse:

Dr Olivier Allegre