Internetworking and Network Layer in Internet

Lecture -33 -35

1. Tunneling, Internetwork Routing
2. Fragmentation
3. IP-Protocol
4. IP-Address Classes(A,B,C,D,E), Broadcast address , Multicast address, Network Mask,
Subnetting
5. Internet control Protocol-ICMP,IGMP
6. OSPF-Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
7. BGP-Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol
8. Internet Multicasting
9. Mobile-IP
10. IPv6
 Tunneling…..

• Internetworking two different networks is difficult

Connecting Networks
How Networks Differ

Some of the many ways networks can differ.

 Tunneling a packet from Paris to London.

Problem: Here source and destination are on same type of network but there is
different kind of network in between.

Solution: Tunneling
 Internetwork Routing
(a) An internetwork. (b) A graph of the
internetwork.

• Once the graph has been constructed, Distance Vector and Link state routing can
be applied to set of multiprotocol routers. This gives a two level routing algorithm:
1. Within each network an interior gateway protocol is used
2. But between networks, an exterior gateway protocol is used
Internetwork routing
• Requires crossing
international boundaries
1. Various laws come in to
play like : sweden’s privacy
law about exporting
personal data about
swedish citizen from
sweden
2. Canadian law saying data
originated from can add
and destined in canada
may not leave the country.
Internetwork routing
• COST: within a network
only one algorithm applies
but different networks may
be under different
managements , so there
will be different routes with
different cost and quality of
service
• Within a big internetwork it
is difficult to choose best
route as it is time
consuming.
 Fragmentation
• Network designers are not free to chose any maximum packet
size they wish.( hardware, od, protocols, error handling)
• Problem: when a large packet wants to travel through a
network whose max packet size is too small.
1. Solution 1: use routing algorithm that avoid sending packets
to route that support small packet size.
2. Fragmentation: divide the big packet into small
But reverse process is not easy. ( 2nd law of
thermodynamic)

There are two schemes to combine the packets again:

a) Transparent
b) Non- transparent
 Fragmentation

(a) Transparent fragmentation. (b) Nontransparent fragmentation.

 Fragmentation (2)

Fragmentation when the elementary data size is 1 byte.

(a) Original packet, containing 10 data bytes.
(b) Fragments after passing through a network with maximum
packet size of 8 payload bytes plus header.
(c) Fragments after passing through a size 5 gateway.
 The Network Layer in the Internet
• The IP Protocol
• IP Addresses
• Internet Control Protocols
• OSPF – The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
• BGP – The Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol
• Internet Multicasting
• Mobile IP
• IPv6
 Design Principles for Internet
1. Make sure it works.
2. Keep it simple.
3. Make clear choices.
4. Exploit modularity.
5. Expect heterogeneity.
6. Avoid static options and parameters.
7. Look for a good design; it need not be perfect.
8. Be strict when sending and tolerant when receiving.
9. Think about scalability.
10.Consider performance and cost.
 Collection of Subnetworks

The Internet is an interconnected collection of many networks.

 IP
• The IP is the internetworking protocol that offers a
service with the following characteristics:
• It is connectionless, so units of network layer data
protocol ,denominated datagram in the IP context, are
dealt with in an individual way from the source host up
to the destination host
• It is not reliable. The data-grams can be lost,
duplicated, or disordered, and the network does not
detect or report this problem
• Part of TCP/IP
– Used by the Internet
• Specifies interface with higher layer
– e.g. TCP
• Specifies protocol format and mechanisms
• IPv4
– addresses are 32 bits wide
– Its header is 20 bytes at minimum
– Uses doted-decimal notation (e.g. 43.23.43.56)
• IPv6
– Provides larges address domain; addresses are 128 bits wide
– Multiple separate headers are supported
– Handles audio and video; providing high quality paths
– Supports unicast, multicast, anycast
 The IP Protocol
• IP packets all have a header as shown
 IP Header format
• The version field keeps track of which version of the protocol
the datagram belongs to.

• Hlen is provided to tell how long the header is in 32-bit words

• The type of service field allows the host to tell the subnet
what kind of service it wants. Various combinations of
reliability and speed are possible. The three flag bits allow the
host to specify what it cares most about from the net [delay,
throughput, reliability]
• The total length includes everything in the datagram – both
header and data
 IP Header Format
• The identification field is needed to allow the destination
host to determine which datagram a newly arrived fragment
belongs to. All the fragments of a datagram contain the same
identification value
DF = Don’t Fragment
MF = More Fragment

• The fragment offset tells where in the current datagram this

fragment belongs

• The time to live field is a counter used to limit packet

lifetimes

• The protocol field tells it which transport process to give it to,

TCP, UDP and some others
 IP Header Format

• The header checksum verifies the header only. Checksum is useful to

detecting errors generated by bad memory words inside a router
• The source address and destination address indicate the network number and
host numbers
• The option field was designed to provide an escape to allow subsequent
version of the protocol to include information not present in the original
design

Option Description
Security Specifies how secret the datagram is
Strict source routingGives the complete path to be followed
Loose source routingGives a list of routers not to be missed
Record route Makes each router append its IP address
Timestamp Makes each router append its address and timestamp
 Internet Control Protocols
• IP protocol only deal with the data transfer
• We need control protocol to check the
network
– ICMP, ARP, RARP, BOOTP, HDCP
 Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP)
• ICMP error messages are used by routers and hosts to tell a device that
sent a datagram about problems encountered in delivering it
– Used to test the network
– Messages are encapsulated in the IP packet
– Has many message types
 ARP (address resolution protocol)
• Exploits broadcast property of a LAN
• Each host on LAN maintains a a table of IP
subnetwork addresses
• If the address can not be found ARP broadcasts
a request
– Shouting: Who know about this IP address?
• Other hosts listen and reply
– The reply includes IP address and MAC
– Any interested host can learn about the new
information
 ARP Example
• Assume 1 is sending a message to 2 (rose@sonoma.edu)
– Sonoma.edu is the host
– Host 1 sends a message to Domain Name System (DNS): what is the IP address for Sonoma.edu? 
192.31.65.5
– What is the MAC address for 192.31.65.5? Use ARP broadcast!
• Host 2 respond: it is E2
– Host 1 maps IP and MAC; encapsulate the IP message in the Ethernet frame and send it
– Cashing can enhance ARP operation
 ARP Example
• Assume 1 is sending a message to 4 (rose@sonoma.edu)
– Sonoma.edu is the host
– Host 1 sends a message to Domain Name System (DNS): what is the IP address for Sonoma.edu? 
192.31.65.8 What is the MAC address for 192.31.65.8? ARP cannot pass through the router!
– Two choices:
• Reconfigure routers to response to ARP (Proxy ARP)
• Send the message to the LAN router (E3)F1F34 – Each router looks are the IP address and passes it to
the next node using the routing table
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
(RARP)

• Allows a station to determine its IP address from

its hardware address
• A server can be configured to respond to RARP
request automatically allocating IP address across
the network
• Not used much nowadays, replaced instead by
more powerful auto configuration protocols such
as DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
[1] A. S. TanenBaum, "Computer
Networks," Pearson Education,
2003, pp. 453-454.
 Remember…
• This is My MAC; what is my IP address? RARP

• This is the destination host name, what it is IP

address? DNS Server

• This is the IP address, what is your` MAC

address? ARP
IP Addresses
IP address formats.
IP Addresses (2)
Special IP addresses.