You are welcomed to the

PREMIER UNIVERSITY
and the
PREMIER
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
for the 2022/2023 academic session

CHE 156
(PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY I)

1
 Course Outline
Atoms and Molecules
Acids, Bases and Salts

Thermochemistry
Oxidation and Reduction`Reactions/
Electrochemistry
Rates of Reactions
Kinetic Theory of Gases
2
Oxidation and Reductions/
Electrochemistry-

Dr. Onyinyechi V. Uhuo

(B15)
3
Oxidation and Reductions

Definition of Terms

Calculation of Oxidation
numbers

Oxidizing and Reducing

Agents

Identifying Redox
Reactions

Balancing Redox
Equations 4
Background Knowledge

Periodic Table

Atomic number

Electronic
configuration

Loss or gain of
electron

Sign nomenclature
of electron loss or
gain 5
 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
(DEFINITIONS)

In terms of 2. REDOX 1. In terms of oxygen

oxidation number*
3.
In terms of hydrogen
2.
*In terms of electron and
*In terms of electronegative/electropositive elements

A number of these definitions are

6
 1. Definition in term of oxygen
Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a substance
while Reduction is the removal of oxygen from a
substance
Oxidizing agent is the substance that is reduced
Reducing agent is the substance that is oxidized
An oxidizing agent in one reaction can act as
the reducing agent in another reaction
Example 1: Extraction/production of metals by reduction
of their ores (which exist as metal oxides in most cases) to
the metal. E.g production of iron from iron ore (hemitite)
7
 reduction

(O.A) (R.A)
oxidation

1. Fe2O3 → Fe (removal of Oxygen) (reduction)

Fe2O3 donates oxygen to CO to produce CO2.
Fe2O3 is reduced to Fe (oxidizing agent, O.A)

2. CO → CO2 (addition of oxygen) (Oxidation)

CO removes oxygen from Fe2O3 to produce Fe
CO is oxidized to CO2 (reducing agent, R.A)
8
Example 2: Iron chains when exposed
to oxygen from the atmosphere rust
because of the addition of oxygen.
oxidation

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)

(R.A) (O.A)
reduction

1. Fe → Fe2O3 (Addition of Oxygen) (Oxidation)

Fe is oxidized to Fe2O3 (Fe is the R.A)

2. O2 → Fe2O3 (Reduction) (Addition of

Fe, an electropositive element)
O2 is reduced to Fe2O3 (O2 is the O.A) 9
Example 3:

oxidation

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

(R.A) (O.A)
reduction

1. Zn → ZnSO4 (Addition of Oxygen) (Oxidation)

Zn is oxidized to ZnSO4 (Zn is the R.A)

2. CuSO4 → Cu (Removal of oxygen) (Reduction)

CuSO4 is reduced to Cu (CuSO4 is the O.A)
10
2. Definition in terms of hydrogen

• Oxidation is the removal of

hydrogen from a compound.

• Reduction is the addition of

hydrogen to a compound

11
Example 4:

Example 5:

12
Example 6: Combustion of Hydrocarbon.

oxidation
Hydrocarbon CH + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(R.A) (O.A)
reduction

1. Hydrocarbon, CH → CO2 (removal of H; Oxidation

Hydrocarbon is oxidized to CO2 (R.A)

2. O2 → H2O (Addition of H; Reduction)

O2 is reduced to H2O (O2 is the O.A)
13
Example 7: Cellular Respiration
(oxidation of glucose).

oxidation https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/
mitochondria/mitochondria.html

C6H12O6 + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

(R.A) (O.A)
reduction
1. C6H12O6 → CO2 (Removal of H; Oxidation)
C6H12O6 is oxidized to CO2 (R.A)

2. O2 → H2O (Addition of H; Reduction)

O2 is reduced to H2O (O2 is the O.A)
14
Exercises

CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(l)

Cl2(g) + H2(g) HCl(g)

15
 THERE ARE REACTIONS
THAT DO NOT CONTAIN
OXYGEN OR HYDROGEN

DEFINITION OF OXIDATION AND

REDUCTION IN TERMS OF OXYGEN AND
HYDROGEN CANNOT EXPLAIN THESE
REACTION
16
 3). Definition in terms of oxidation
number (electron )
•Oxidation is the loss of electron
• Oxidation is the increase in the oxidation number

Oxidation number increases

•Reduction is the gain of electron

•Reduction is the decrease in the oxidation number

Oxidation number decreases 17

The oxidation and reduction half-reactions must
always occur together
the total number of electron loss in the
oxidation reaction(s) must be the total number
of electron gained in the reduction reaction(s).
In any redox equation, there is at least one
oxidation half-reaction and at least one
reduction half-reaction. 18
 Zn(s)

ZnSO4(aq)
CuSO4(aq)
Cu(s)
Addition of metallic zinc to an aqueous CuSO4, which
is blue, to give a colourless aqueous solution of ZnSO4
and a red-brownish deposit of Cu metal.
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
This reaction can be divided into two halves, called
half-reactions, the oxidation reaction and the
reduction reaction. 19
Example 8:

oxidation

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

(R.A) (O.A)
reduction

1. Zn → ZnSO4 oxidation number of Zn is 0 in

Zn(s) and -2 in ZnSO4. Oxidation number
decreases; Loss of electron; oxidation)

2. CuSO4 → Cu (oxidation number of Cu changed

from -2 in CuSO4(aq) to 0 in Cu(s); Oxidation
number increases; Gain of electron; Reduction)20
 oxidation
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
reduction

Oxidation reaction: Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e-

Reduction reaction: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)

Net reaction: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Zn2+(aq)+ Cu(s) +2

Net reaction: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

Number of electrons lost during oxidation equals

number of electrons gained during reduction 21
 3). Definition in terms of oxidation
number (electron )
Example 9:
Oxidation
2Na(aq) + H2(s) → 2NaH(s)
(R.A) (O.A)
reduction

Na → NaH (Addition of H; Reduction) (Oxidation)

Oxidation number changed from 0 to +1
Na is oxidized to NaH (NaH is the R.A)

H2 → NaH (oxidation number changed from 0 in

H2 to -1 in NaH) (Reduction) 22
23
*). Definition in terms of addition and
removal of electronegative and
electropositive elements
Oxidation is the addition of electronegative elements
or the removal of electropositive elements

Reduction is the removal of electronegative elements

or the addition of electropositive elements.
Electronegative elements (non-metals): F, O, Cl, N, Br,
C, I, P
Electropositive elements (metals): K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al,
Zn, Pb, Cu, H 24
Oxidation is the addition of electronegative elements
or the removal of electropositive elements

Reduction is the removal of electronegative elements

or the addition of electropositive elements.

Oxidation is the addition of Oxygen (an

electronegative element) or the removal of
Hydrogen (an electropositive elements).
Reduction is the removal of Oxygen (an
electronegative element) or the addition of
Hydrogen (an electropositive elements). 25
Example 10:

oxidation

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

(R.A) (O.A)
reduction

1. Na → NaCl (Addition of electronegative

element, Cl; Oxidation)
Na is oxidized to NaCl (Na is the R.A)

2. Cl2 → NaCl (Addition of Na, electropositive

element; Reduction)
Cl2 is reduced to NaCl (Cl2 is the O.A) 26
 General Rules for Calculating Oxidation Number

1. The oxidation number of an uncombined atom is

zero (oxidation of H2, He, Zn, Cu, K = 0; ie H20, Zn0,
Cu0, K0; but written as H2, Zn, Cu, K).
2a. The sum of oxidation number of all atoms/
elements in a molecule is equal to zero (ZnSO4)0,
(CuSO4)0, (Na2HPO4)0, (KMnO4)0.
2b. For an ionic compound, the sum of oxidation
numbers of all atoms/elements is equal to the
charge on the compound. Oxidation numbers of
PO43- = -3; MnO4- = -1; and NH4+ = +1 27
 General Rules for Calculating Oxidation Number
3i. The oxidation number of the alkali metals (Li, Na,
K, Rb, Cs; group IA) is +1 while that of the alkaline
earth metals (group IIA; Be, Mg, Ca, Ba) is +2.
3ii. Oxidation number of a simple ion (ion comprising
of just a single element) is equal to the charge on
the ion. E.g. The oxidation number of Na+ = +1;
Al3+ = +3; Cl- = -1; F- = -1.
4. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 in its
compounds while that of fluorine is –1.
5. Oxygen has an oxidation number of –2 in its
compound. 28
 General Rules for Calculating Oxidation Number
6. In their binary compounds with metals, the
elements of group VIIA (KCl, NaBr) have oxidation
number of –1; group 6A (CaO, MgO, ZnO, ZnS) -2
and group VA (AlN) -3.
7. The application of the rules are in order of 1, 2,
3……6, that is, rule 1 supercedes rule 2 and rule 2
surpercedes rule 3 and so on.
NOTE: Some elements have more than one
oxidation number in different compounds or
reactions. E.g. Fe is +2 in FeCl2 but +3 in FeCl3 .
Nitrogen is -3 in NH3, +1 in N2O and +5 in N2O5
29
30
23
Na (Group 1 element)
Atomic Mass 23
Atomic number 11 (No. of proton)
No. of electron 11
Electronic configuration 2,8,1 Na
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Na will lose 1 electron
Oxidation number +1
16
O Group 6 element
Atomic Mass 16
Atomic number 8
No. of electron 8
O Electronic configuration 2,6
1s2 2s2 2p4
O will need to gain 2 electrons
Oxidation number -2 31
the
Following compounds a) S8 b) ZnS

c) H2S
Solution: d) Na2SO3 e) Na2SO4 f) Na2S2O3
a) S8
Oxidation number of S atom in S8 is equal to 0
(Rule 1, element in its uncombined state)
8 x (S) = 0.
Therefore S = 0/8 = 0
b) ZnS
Rule 6, S is in group 6 A. Hence in its binary
compound with metals, Its oxidation number is –2.
S = -2
c) H2S Rule 4, H = +1
Therefore 2(+1) + S = 0
32
2+ S=0 S = -2
d) Na2SO3 e) Na2S2O3

Rule 2, Na2SO3= 0 Rule 2, Na2SO3= 0

Rule 3, Na = +1; Rule 3, Na = +1;
Rule 5, O = -2 Rule 5, O = -2
2(Na) + S + 3(O) = 0 2(Na) + 2(S) + 3(O) = 0
2(+1) + 2(S) + 3(-2) = 0
2(+1) + S + 3(-2) = 0
2 + 2S – 6 = 0
2+ S–6=0
2S – 4 = 0
S–4=0
2S = 4
S = +4
S = 4/2
S = +2

33
 Example: What is the oxidation number of hydrogen in
compounds (a) and (b), and that of oxygen in compound
(c)?
a) NaH b) H2O c) H2O2

a) NaH b) H2O c) H2O2

Rule 3, Na = +1 Rule 5, O = -2 Rule 3 & 4, H = +1

Na + H = 0 2(H) + O = 0 2(H) + 2O = 0
1+H=0 2H -2 = 0 2(1) + 2(O) = 0
2H = 2 2 + 2O = 0
H = -1 2O = -2
H = +1 O = -2/2
O = -1 34
In b&c) the determination of hydrogen’s
oxidation number comes before that of
oxygen. That is, Rule 4 should be applied
before Rule 5. Hence H = +1 in both cases.
b) H2O c) H2O2

Rule 4, H = +1 Rule 4, H = +1
Rule 5, O = -2
Answer: O = -1
H = +1
(Rule 4 is applied (but in Rule 5, O = -2)
before Rule 5 Rule 5 does not
apply here 35
Example: Calculate the oxidation number of oxygen
in the following compounds

a) H2O b) K2O c) KO2

a) H2O b) K2O c) KO2

Rule 4, H = +1 Rule 3, K = +1 Rule 3, K = +1

2H + O = 0 2K + O = 0 K + 2(O) = 0
2(+1) + O = 0 2(+1) + O = 0 1 + 2(O) = 0
2+O=0 2+O=0 2(O) = -1

O = -2 O = -2 O=-½
36
Example: Calculate the oxidation number of the
metal atom in each of the following ionic formular
units a) MnO4- b) Al(H2O)63+ c) Cr2O72-
a) MnO4-
Rule 2, Mn + 4(O) = -1
Rule 5, O = -2
Mn + 4(-2) = -1
Mn – 8 = -1 c) Cr2O72-
Mn = -1 + 8
Rule 2, 2(Cr) + 7(O) = -2
Mn = +7
Rule 5, O = -2
b) Al(H2O)6 3+
2(Cr) + 7(-2) = -2
Rule 2, Al + 6(H2O) = +3 2(Cr) – 14 = -2
Rule 2, H2O = 0 2(Cr) = -2 + 14
Al + 6(0) = +3 2(Cr) = +12
Al + 0 = +3 Cr = +12/2 37
Cr = +6
Example: Calculate the oxidation number of the
metal atom in each of the following ionic formular
units a) Re2Cl82- b) Fe(CN)63-
Solution:
a) Re2Cl82-
Rule 3, 2(Re) + 8(Cl) = -2
Rule 6, Cl = -1
2(Re) + 8(-1) = -2 c) Fe(CN)63-
2(Re) – 8 = -2
2(Re) = +6 Rule 3, Fe + 6(CN) = -3
Re = +3 CN is a formular unit on
its own. Its charge is –1
(carbon is +4 and N = -5)
Fe + 6(-1) = -3
Fe - 6 = -3
Fe = +3 38
Identifying Redox Reactions

Redox reactions are identified by checking the

oxidation numbers of the elements present in
the reaction at both the reactant side and the
product side, whether they change or not.
If the oxidation number of some of the
elements change, then it is a redox reaction.
If there are no changes in oxidation number of
the elements, then the reaction is not a redox
reaction. 39
Example: State whether the following
reactions are redox reactions or not.

1. 2Al(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 6H2O → 2NaAl(OH)4(aq) + 3H2(g)

Al changed from Al0 to Al3+
H changed from H+ to H0
Therefore it is a redox reaction.
2. Na2CO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) → CaCO3(s) + 2NaOH(aq)
Na is +1 in Na2CO3(aq) and NaOH
Ca is +2 in Ca(OH)2(s) and CaCO3(s)
H is +1 in Ca(OH)2(s) and NaOH
O is -2 in Ca(OH)2(s), CaCO3(s) and NaOH
There is no change in the oxidation states
40
This is not a redox reaction
Example: State whether the following
reactions are redox reactions or not.

3. Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

Fe has changed from Fe3+ to Fe (oxidation state 0)
C has changed from C2+ to C4+
Therefore it is a redox reaction.
4. Ca3P2(s) + 6H2O(l) 3Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2PH3(g)
No element in this reaction has a change in
oxidation number.
P is –3 in Ca3P2(s) and PH3(g)
Ca is +2 in Ca3P2(s) and Ca(OH)2(aq) .
This is not a redox reaction 41
5. P4(s) + 5O2(g) → P4O10(s)

P has changed from 0 in P4 to +5 in P4O10

O has changed from 0 in O2 to –2 in P4O10

This is therefore a redox reaction.

42
 Balancing of Redox Equations
Step 1:- Identify the species (atoms/ions) involved in
the redox reaction (oxidation number changes)

write out their half-reactions.

Step 2:- Balance each of the half-reactions atomically

in this order.
i) atoms other than oxygen and hydrogen
ii) oxygen atoms by adding H2O
iii) hydrogen atoms by adding H+

Step 3:- Balance each half-reaction electrically by

adding necessary number of electrons. 43
 Balancing of Redox Equations
Step 4:- Ensure the oxidation numbers of the
two half-reactions are equal.
Obtain the net redox reaction by
combining the two half-reactions

Step 5:- Simplify the net equation by bringing

the same species together.

Step 6:- Verify the final equation to be sure

that it is balanced atomically and
electrically. 44
For example: Balance the following redox reactions
in acidic medium.
i) MnO4- + Fe2+ Mn2+ + Fe3+

Step 1: Identify the oxidation and reduction half-reactions

MnO4- → Mn2+ (reduction half-reaction)
Fe2+ → Fe3+ (oxidation half-reaction)
Step 2: Balancing each half-reaction atomically
MnO4- → Mn2+ + 4H2O
(4H2O added for 4 oxygen atoms)
Since we now have 8 hydrogen atoms on the right, we need to
add 8H+ to the left.
MnO4- + 8H+ → Mn2+ + 4H2O
Fe2+ → Fe3+
Step 3: Balancing each half-reaction electrically
MnO4- + 8H+ → Mn2+ + 4H2O
-1 + 8(+1) +2 + 0 (Oxidation number)
45
The difference in oxidation numbers of the LHS and RHS of the
equation is +5 (ie 7 – 2 = 5). Hence, 5 electrons are added to the LHS
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- → Mn2+ + 4H2O ……………(1)

For Fe2+ → Fe3+

Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e- …………………………………..………(2)
(an electron is added to the right-hand side)
Step 4: There are 5e- in equation (1) and one in equation (2).
Therefore, equation (2) has to be multiplied by 5 so that it will have
the same number of electrons as equation (1).
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- → Mn2+ + 4H2O ………(1)
5Fe2+ → 5Fe3+ + 5e- ………………..…………….(3)
MnO4- + 5Fe2+ + 8H+ + 5e- → Mn2+ + 4H2O + 5Fe3+ + 5e-

The balanced redox reaction is therefore

MnO4- + 5Fe2+ + 8H+ → Mn2+ + 4H2O + 5Fe3+ 46
 ii) SO32- + MnO4- + H+ → SO42- + Mn2+ + H2O
Step 1: SO32- → SO42- (oxidation)
MnO4- → Mn2+ (reduction)
Step 2: SO32- → SO42-
(left-hand side is one oxygen less, hence H2O is added)
SO32- + H2O → SO42-
(add 2H+ to account for the H on the right-hand side, RHS)
SO32- + H2O → SO42- + 2H+
MnO4- → Mn2+ (balance as in previous example to give)
MnO4- + 8H+ → Mn2+ + 4H2O
Step 3: Balancing the reaction electrically
SO32- + H2O → SO42- + 2H+
-2 0 (2 electrons are to be added to the LHS)
SO32- + H2O → SO42- + 2H+ + 2e- ……………(1)
47
MnO -
+ 8H +
→ Mn 2+
+ 4H O becomes
 SO32- + H2O → SO42- + 2H+ + 2e- ……………..…(1)
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- → Mn2+ + 4H2O……………(2)

Step 4: Equation (1) has 2 electrons while equation (2) has 5

electrons, therefore equation (1) should be multiplied by 5 and equation
(2) multiplied by 2.
(1) x 5: 5SO32- + 5H2O → 5SO42- + 10H+ + 10e-
(2) x 2: 2MnO4- + 16H+ + 10e- → 2Mn2+ + 8H2O
5SO32- + 5H2O + 2MnO4- + 16H+ + 10e- → 5SO42- + 10H+ + 2Mn2+ +
8H2O + 10e-

Step 5: Simplifying the reaction, collecting like terms to the same side

5SO32- + 2MnO4- + 6H+ → 5SO42- + 2Mn2+ + 3H2O

48
 Balancing Redox reaction in Basic medium
It is easier to use a similar method as those in acidic medium, with extra
step. The extra step involves addition of hydroxyl ion equivalent to the
hydrogen ion, after the net reaction equation has been obtained.
For example, balance the equation below in a basic medium.
KMnO4 + Na2SO3 + H2O → MnO2 + Na2SO4 + KOH
MnO4- + SO32- + H2O → MnO2 + SO42- + KOH
Step 1: MnO4- → MnO2
SO32- → SO42-
Step 2: Balancing each half-reaction atomically
MnO4- → MnO2 + 2H2O (2H2O added to balance 2O atoms)
MnO4- + 4H+ → MnO2 + 2H2O
(4H+ added to balance the 4H from the 2H2O)
SO32- + H2O → SO42-
(H2O added to balance 1 oxygen atoms)
49
SO + H O → SO + 2H
2- 2- +
Step 3: Balancing each half reaction electrically
MnO4- + 4H+ + 3e- → MnO2 + 2H2O ………………………….(1)
(3e- added to the right-hand side to equate the charge to 0)
For SO32- + H2O → SO42- + 2H+ + 2e- …………………………(2)
(2e- added to the right-hand side to equate the charge to -2)
Step 4: Combining the two half-equations
(1) x 2: 2MnO4- + 8H+ + 6e- → 2MnO2 + 4H2O ……………..……..(3)
(2) X 3: 3SO32- + 3H2O → 3SO42- + 6H+ + 6e- …………………………(4)
2MnO4- + 8H+ + 6e- + 3SO32- + 3H2O → 2MnO2 + 4H2O + 3SO42- + 6H+ + 6e-
simplifying: 2MnO4- + 2H+ + 3SO32- → 2MnO2 + H2O + 3SO42-
Step 5: To balance the reaction in a basic medium add 2OH- to both sides
2MnO4- + 2H+ + 3SO32- + 2OH- → 2MnO2 + H2O + 3SO42- + 2OH-
Step 6: Simplying step 5 by collecting like terms, we have
2MnO4- + 3SO32- + 2H+ + 2OH- → 2MnO2 + H2O + 3SO42- + 2OH-
2MnO4- + 3SO32- + 2H2O → 2MnO2 + H2O + 3SO42- + 2OH-
2MnO4- + 3SO32- + H2O → 2MnO2 + 3SO42- + 2OH- 50
Balance in a basic medium: Cr3+ + IO3- → I - + CrO42-
Step 1: Cr3+ → CrO42-
IO3- → I-

Step 2: Balancing each half-reaction atomically

Cr3+ + 4H2O → CrO42-
(4H2O added to balance 4 oxygen atoms)
Cr3+ + 4H2O → CrO42- + 8H+
(8H+ added to balance for 8H introduced by 4H2O)
IO3- → I- + 3H2O
(3H2O added to balance 3 oxygen atoms)
IO3- + 6H+ → I- + 3H2O
(6H+ added to balance the 6H introduced by 3H2O)

Step 3: Balancing each half reaction electrically

Cr3+ + 4H2O → CrO42- + 8H+
+3 +6 51
 For IO3- + 6H+ → I- + 3H2O
+5 -1
this implies that 6 electrons should be added to the left-hand side
IO3- + 6H+ + 6e- → I- + 3H2O……………………….…(2)
Step 4: Combining the two half-equations
(1) x 2 2Cr3+ + 8H2O → 2CrO42- + 16H+ + 6e-……………..(3)
(2) IO3- + 6H+ + 6e- → I- + 3H2O………………………….……(2)
(3) + (2) 2Cr3+ + 8H2O + IO3- + 6H+ → 2CrO42- + 16H+ + I- + 3H2O
simplifying we have
2Cr3+ + 5H2O + IO3- → 2CrO42- + 10H+ + I-
Step 5: To balance the reaction in a basic medium add 10 OH- to
both sides:
2Cr3+ + 5H2O + IO3- + 10 OH- → 2CrO42- + I- + 10H+ +
10 OH-
2Cr3+ + 5H2O + IO3- + 10 OH- → 2CrO42- + I- + 52
Balancing Disproportional Reaction
A disproportionation reaction is a reaction in which the same substance
(on the reactant side) that is being oxidized is also being reduced.
An example: P4(s) + OH-(aq) → H2PO2-(aq) + PH3(g) + H2O
Step 1: P4 → H2PO2-
P4 → PH3
Step 2: (a) balancing P
P4 → 4H2PO2-
P4 → 4PH3
(b) balancing O
P4 + 8H2O → 4H2PO2-
P4 → 4PH3
(c) balancing H
P4 + 8H2O → 4H2PO2- + 8H+
P4 + 12H+ → 4PH3
Step 3: Balancing the half-equations electrically 53
P + 8H O → 4H PO - + 8H+ + 4e-……………….(1)
Balancing a disproportionation reaction
Step 4: Combining the half-reactions
(1) x 3: 3P4 + 24H2O → 12H2PO2- + 24H+ + 12e-…….(3)
(2): P4 + 12H+ + 12e- → 4PH3……………………..(2)
(3) + (2): 4P4 + 24H2O → 12H2PO2- + 4PH3 + 12H+
Step 5: For the reaction to be in a basic medium, add 12
OH- to both sides
4P4 + 24H2O + 12 OH- → 12H2PO2- + 4PH3 + 12H+ + 12 OH-
4P4 + 24H2O + 12 OH- → 12H2PO2- + 4PH3 + 12H2O
Step 6: Simplifying the net equation by collecting like
terms we have
4P4 + 12H2O + 12 OH- → 12H2PO2- + 4PH3
(dividing through by 4 we have) 54
- -
 Balancing a conproportionation reaction
In this case, we may have the same element in two different
compounds in the reactants coming together to form the only
product or one of the products. In this process, one is oxidized
to the product, while the other is reduced to the product. This
example is known as conproportionation reaction. Such
equations can be balanced in the same way as the
disproportionation reaction. An example is

HIO3 + HI + H+ → I2 + H2O

There are a number of practical problems that involves redox

reactions, in such problems the redox equations must be
balanced first and then apply the mole ratio obtained from it
55
for calculations.
 Exercise 1
Calculate the oxidation number of carbon in the following compounds
a) CO b) CO2 c) COCl2 d) CaCO3
e) CCl4 f) CH4 g) H2CO h) HCO2H

What is the oxidation number of manganese in each of the following compunds?

a) KMnO4 b) Mn2O7 c) MgMnO3 d) MnO e) MnO2

Assign oxidation number to each of the elements in the following compounds

a) OF2 b) HOF c) O2F2 d) PH3
e) CaH2 f) PH4+ g) ClF3 h) MnO42-

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 Oxidizing and Reducing agents
The substance that is oxidized is the reducing agent
because it is the one that made it possible for the other
substance to be reduced. The substance that is reduced
isAtherefore
compound the oxidizing
that agent. agent in a reaction can
is an oxidizing
be a reducing agent in another reaction. This is
essentially due to whether it is reduced or oxidized in
the
E.g, H2Oreaction.
2 can behave as both an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent

depending on the substance it is reacting with as in the following reactions

i) H2O2(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H+(aq) →2H2O + 2Fe3+(aq)
ii) 5H2O2(aq) + 2MnO4-(aq) + 6H+(aq) → 8H2O + 2Mn2+(aq) + 5O2(g)
iii) H2O2(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2 OH-(aq) → 2H2O + 2Cl-(aq) + O2(g)

In (i) H2O2 oxidized Fe2+ to Fe3+, therefore it is an oxidizing agent in (i).

(ii) H2O2 reduced MnO4- to Mn2+, it is therefore a reducing agent in (ii).
57
(iii) H O reduced Cl to Cl-, it is therefore a reducing agent in this (iii).
Some common strong oxidizing agents are
Permanganate ion (MnO4-)
Ozone (O3)
Hypochloride ion (OCl-)
Some common strong reducing agents are
Carbon (C)
Thiosulphate ion (S2O32-)
Iodide ion (I-) 58
 Exercise 2
State whether the following reactions are redox reactions or not. If they are, identify
the oxidizing agents and the reducing agents.
a) PH3(g) + HCl(g) PH4Cl(s)
b) SiO2(aq) + 3C(s) SiC(s) + 2CO(g)
c) Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
d) NaI(aq) + 3HOCl(aq) NaIO3(aq) + 3HCl(aq)
e) I2(g) + 10HNO3(aq) 2HIO3(aq) + 10NO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
f) 2HBr(aq) + H2SO4(aq) SO2(g) + Br2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Write a balanced equation for each of these half-reactions in an acidic medium

a) Cl2 ClO3-
b) H4IO6- I
c) Fe Fe(OH)2
d) BiO3- Bi3+
e) NO3- NH4+

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 Exercise 3
Balance the following redox reactions, which occur in an acid medium.
a) UO2+ + NO3- + H+ UO22+ + NO + H2O
b) S2O32- + MnO4- SO42- + Mn2+
c) H2S + CrO42- S8 + Cr3+
d) Br2 + SO2 H2SO4 + HBr
e) BrO3- + Cr3+ Br2 + HCrO4-

Write a balanced equation for the following reactions, which occur in a basic medium
a) As2S3 + H2O2 AsO43- + H2O + SO42-
b) NO + MnO4- NO3- + MnO2
c) Fe(OH)2 + O2 Fe(OH)3 + H2O
d) CN- + MnO4- MnO2 + CNO- + H2O
e) NH3 + MnO4- N2 + MnO2

60
Some common strong oxidizing agents are
Permanganate ion (MnO4-)
Ozone (O3)
Hypochloride ion (OCl-)
Some common strong reducing agents are
Carbon (C)
Thiosulphate ion (S2O32-)
Iodide ion (I-) 61
Example 9:

oxidation

H2S + Cl2 → S + 2HCl

(R.A) (O.A)
reduction

1. H2S → S (Removal of H; Oxidation)

H2S is oxidized to S (R.A)

2. Cl2 → HCl (Addition of H; Reduction)

Cl2 is reduced to HCl (Cl2 is the O.A)
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