Core Anthropological Theories

Dr Ashrafuzzaman Khan
Assistant Professor
Theories?
• Theories are explanations or models that attempt to describe and
predict how certain phenomena or systems work in the world around
us. Theories are based on observations, experimentation, and data
collection, and are used to develop our understanding of a particular
subject or field. Theories can be used to explain a wide range of
phenomena, from the behavior of subatomic particles to the
dynamics of societies and economies. Theories are an important part
of the scientific process, as they provide a framework for
understanding the world and for testing hypotheses.
What are anthropological Theories?
• Anthropological theories are explanations or models that attempt to
describe and predict human behavior and culture in the world around us.
Anthropology is a broad field that encompasses the study of human
societies, cultures, languages, and physical characteristics. As such,
anthropological theories can take many different forms and can be used to
explain a wide range of phenomena, from the origins and development of
human societies to the ways in which people make meaning and interpret
the world around them.
• Some examples of anthropological theories include cultural evolutionism,
structural-functionalism, symbolic anthropology, and cultural materialism.
These theories are used to develop our understanding of human behavior
and culture, and to guide research in anthropology and related fields.
Core Anthropological theories
• Cultural evolutionism
• Functionalism
• Structuralism
• Symbolic anthropology
• Cultural materialism
• Postmodernism
• Feminist Anthropology
Cultural evolutionism
• Cultural evolutionism is a theory that suggests that human cultures
evolve over time in a linear and progressive manner, from simple to
complex. This theory was popular in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, but has since been largely discredited in modern
anthropology due to its Eurocentric bias and lack of empirical
evidence.
• Nonetheless, it is important to understand the basic tenets of cultural
evolutionism in order to appreciate its historical significance and the
critiques that have been made against it.
Cont…
• The earliest stage of human culture is the "savage" stage, characterized by
small, nomadic groups of people who engage in hunting, fishing, and gathering
for subsistence.
• The second stage is the "barbarian" stage, which is characterized by the
development of agriculture, and the emergence of larger, more settled
communities.
• The third and final stage is the "civilized" stage, which is characterized by the
development of writing, cities, and complex social institutions such as
governments and religions.
• Cultural evolutionism posits that cultures move through these stages in a
linear and progressive manner, with each stage representing an improvement
over the previous stage.
Cont…
• This theory was influenced by the prevailing Western views of progress and
civilization during the colonial era, and it was often used to justify imperialism and
the subjugation of non-Western cultures.
• However, cultural evolutionism has been largely discredited in modern
anthropology due to its lack of empirical evidence and its Eurocentric bias. Critics
argue that it fails to account for the diversity and complexity of human cultures,
and that it imposes a Western, teleological narrative on the history of human
societies.
• In summary, cultural evolutionism is a theory that suggests that human cultures
evolve in a linear and progressive manner from simple to complex stages. While it
was influential in the early development of anthropology, it has been largely
discredited in modern times due to its lack of empirical evidence and its
Eurocentric bias.
Functionalism
• Functionalism is an anthropological theory that suggests that social
institutions and practices serve specific functions within a society, and
that they contribute to the overall stability and survival of that
society. Functionalism was influential in the early development of
anthropology and sociology, and it continues to influence social and
cultural theory to this day.
Cont…
• Society is seen as a system of interconnected parts, with each part
serving a specific function or purpose.
• Social institutions, such as the family, religion, and government, are
seen as essential components of society that help to maintain social
order and stability.
• Functionalism suggests that each social institution serves a specific
function or purpose, such as providing for the basic needs of
individuals, regulating behavior, or transmitting cultural values and
beliefs.
Cont…
• Functionalism emphasizes the importance of social cohesion and
harmony, and it suggests that social institutions and practices
contribute to the overall well-being and survival of a society.
• The functionalist approach emphasizes the role of culture in shaping
social behavior, and it suggests that cultural norms and values help to
maintain social order and stability.
• Critics of functionalism argue that it ignores the role of power and
conflict in shaping social institutions and practices, and that it fails to
account for the diversity and complexity of human cultures.
Cont…
• In summary, functionalism is an anthropological theory that
emphasizes the role of social institutions and practices in maintaining
social order and stability. It suggests that each social institution serves
a specific function or purpose, and that they are interconnected in a
larger system. While it has been criticized for ignoring power and
conflict, functionalism remains an important and influential theory in
social and cultural theory.
Structuralism
• Structuralism is an anthropological theory that focuses on the
underlying structures and patterns that exist in human societies and
cultures, and how they shape individual behavior and experience.
Structuralism was influential in the mid-20th century, and it continues
to shape anthropological theory and methodology to this day.
Cont…
• Structuralism emphasizes the importance of underlying structures and
patterns in human culture, rather than the specific content or meaning
of cultural practices.
• Structuralists believe that cultural practices and beliefs are organized
into underlying structures or systems, which can be studied and
analyzed through various methods such as linguistic analysis, kinship
analysis, and mythological analysis.
• The focus of structuralism is on identifying the underlying rules and
patterns that govern human behavior and experience, rather than on
the individual meanings or intentions behind specific cultural practices.
Cont…
• Structuralism also emphasizes the importance of binary oppositions
and contrasts in human culture, such as male/female, sacred/profane,
or nature/culture. These binary oppositions help to create meaning
and structure in human culture.
• Structuralism suggests that human experience is shaped by the
underlying structures and patterns of culture, rather than by
individual agency or intentionality.
• Critics of structuralism argue that it is overly deterministic and
reductionist, and that it ignores the agency and creativity of
individuals in shaping culture.
Cont…
• In summary, structuralism is an anthropological theory that
emphasizes the importance of underlying structures and patterns in
human culture. It focuses on identifying the rules and patterns that
govern human behavior and experience, and it suggests that human
experience is shaped by these underlying structures. While it has
been criticized for being overly deterministic and reductionist,
structuralism remains an important and influential theory in
anthropology and related fields.
Symbolic anthropology
• Symbolic anthropology is an anthropological theory that focuses on
the role of symbols, meanings, and cultural representations in shaping
human behavior and experience. It is closely related to interpretive
anthropology and cultural anthropology, and it has been influential in
the development of anthropological theory and methodology.
Cont…
• Symbolic anthropology emphasizes the importance of symbols and
meanings in human culture, and how they are used to create and
communicate cultural beliefs and values.

• The focus of symbolic anthropology is on understanding the meanings and

symbols that people use to create and navigate their social and cultural
worlds.

• Symbolic anthropologists use a variety of methods to analyze symbols and

meanings, including textual analysis, ethnographic fieldwork, and
interviews.
Cont…
• Symbolic anthropology suggests that cultural symbols and meanings are not fixed
or static, but are constantly changing and evolving in response to social and
historical contexts.

• Symbolic anthropology emphasizes the importance of cultural context in shaping

the meaning and significance of symbols and meanings, and it suggests that
symbols and meanings can have different meanings and significances in different
cultural contexts.

• Symbolic anthropology also emphasizes the role of human agency and creativity
in shaping cultural symbols and meanings, and it suggests that people actively
participate in creating and shaping their own cultural worlds.
Cont…
• In summary, symbolic anthropology is an anthropological theory that
emphasizes the role of symbols and meanings in shaping human
behavior and experience. It focuses on understanding the meanings
and symbols that people use to create and navigate their social and
cultural worlds, and it suggests that cultural symbols and meanings
are constantly changing and evolving in response to social and
historical contexts. While it has been criticized for being overly
focused on interpretation and meaning, symbolic anthropology
remains an important and influential theory in anthropology and
related fields.
Feminist Anthropology
• Feminist anthropology is a theoretical framework within anthropology
that examines the roles and experiences of women and other
marginalized groups in society. It emerged in the 1970s as part of the
broader feminist movement and has since become an important
perspective in anthropology.
Cont…
• Feminist anthropology seeks to understand the experiences and
perspectives of women and other marginalized groups, and it aims to
challenge and deconstruct traditional gender roles and power structures.

• Feminist anthropologists use a variety of methods to collect and analyze

data, including ethnographic fieldwork, interviews, and textual analysis.

• Feminist anthropology emphasizes the importance of reflexivity and self-

awareness in research, and it encourages anthropologists to critically
examine their own biases and assumptions.
Cont…
• Feminist anthropology recognizes that gender is a socially constructed category
that intersects with other forms of identity, such as race, class, and sexuality. It
seeks to understand how these intersections shape individuals' experiences and
identities.

• Feminist anthropology challenges the notion that gender is a natural or biological

category, and instead emphasizes the ways in which gender is constructed and
reinforced through cultural norms and practices.

• Feminist anthropology also critiques the objectivity and neutrality of traditional

anthropological research methods, and it argues for the importance of
collaboration and dialogue with the communities being studied.
Cont…
• In summary, feminist anthropology is a theoretical framework within
anthropology that examines the roles and experiences of women and
other marginalized groups in society. It emphasizes the importance of
reflexivity, self-awareness, and collaboration in research, and it seeks
to challenge and deconstruct traditional gender roles and power
structures. While it has been criticized for being overly focused on
gender to the exclusion of other forms of identity, feminist
anthropology remains an important and influential perspective in
anthropology and related fields.
Cultural Materialism
• Cultural materialism is a theoretical framework within anthropology
that focuses on the ways in which material conditions, such as the
environment, technology, and economic systems, shape cultural
practices and beliefs. It emerged in the 1970s as a response to earlier
theoretical frameworks, such as functionalism and structuralism, that
were seen as overly focused on culture as an autonomous system.
Cont…
• Cultural materialism begins by emphasizing the importance of material conditions in
shaping cultural practices and beliefs. It suggests that material conditions, such as the
environment and economic systems, are the primary factors that drive cultural change.

• Cultural materialism argues that human societies have a "material base," which
consists of their physical environment, technology, and economic systems. This
material base shapes the way in which societies produce and consume goods, and it is
the basis for their social organization.

• Cultural materialism also emphasizes the importance of the "infrastructure" and

"superstructure" in shaping cultural practices and beliefs. The infrastructure includes
the material conditions of society, while the superstructure includes the social,
political, and ideological aspects of society.
Cont…
• Cultural materialism argues that the superstructure, including cultural practices and beliefs, is
ultimately shaped by the material conditions of the infrastructure. In other words, cultural
practices and beliefs are not autonomous or self-contained, but rather are shaped by the
underlying material conditions of society.

• Cultural materialism also emphasizes the importance of analyzing the relationships between
different parts of society, including the ways in which they interact and influence each other. It
suggests that cultural practices and beliefs are not fixed or static, but rather are constantly
changing and evolving in response to material conditions.

• Finally, cultural materialism emphasizes the importance of empirical research and data
collection in understanding cultural change. It suggests that anthropologists should focus on
gathering data on material conditions, economic systems, and technology, as well as cultural
practices and beliefs, in order to understand the relationships between them.
Cont…
• In summary, cultural materialism is a theoretical framework within
anthropology that emphasizes the importance of material conditions,
such as the environment, technology, and economic systems, in
shaping cultural practices and beliefs. It argues that cultural practices
and beliefs are not autonomous or self-contained, but rather are
shaped by the underlying material conditions of society. Cultural
materialism also emphasizes the importance of analyzing the
relationships between different parts of society and the importance
of empirical research and data collection.
Postmodernism
• Postmodernism is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that has emerged in
various fields, including literature, art, architecture, philosophy, and
anthropology. Anthropology is a discipline that has been particularly influenced
by postmodernism, which has challenged many of its traditional assumptions and
methods.
• Historical context: Postmodernism emerged in the late 20th century as a
response to the perceived limitations of modernism, which had dominated
Western thought and culture since the Enlightenment. Modernism emphasized
reason, progress, and universalism, and saw science and technology as the key to
solving human problems. However, modernism was also criticized for its
authoritarian tendencies, its neglect of cultural diversity and difference, and its
inability to account for the subjective and emotional aspects of human
experience.
Cont…
• Key themes: Postmodernism is characterized by a number of key
themes, including the rejection of grand narratives, the destabilization
of truth claims, the emphasis on difference and diversity, and the
critique of power and domination. Postmodernists argue that there is
no single objective reality, but rather multiple and conflicting
perspectives that are shaped by language, culture, and history. They
also argue that knowledge is always situated and contextual, and that
power relations shape what is considered valid or true.
Cont…
• Impact on anthropology: Postmodernism has had a significant impact on
anthropology, particularly in the areas of ethnography and cultural relativism.
Ethnography, which is the practice of studying and writing about cultures, has
been criticized for its tendency to produce authoritative accounts of other
cultures that are detached from the social and political contexts in which they
are produced. Postmodernists argue that ethnography is inevitably shaped by
the researcher's own cultural background and biases, and that it can never be
completely objective or neutral. Cultural relativism, which is the idea that
different cultures have their own internal logic and value systems that should
be respected, has also been challenged by postmodernism, which argues that
cultures are not fixed and homogeneous entities, but rather dynamic and
contested processes that are constantly being negotiated and redefined.
Cont…
• Methodological innovations: In response to these critiques, anthropologists
influenced by postmodernism have developed a number of methodological
innovations, including reflexive ethnography, multi-sited ethnography, and
collaborative ethnography. Reflexive ethnography involves the researcher
reflecting on their own positionality and subjectivity in relation to the
research process, and acknowledging the ways in which their own
background and experiences shape their observations and interpretations.
Multi-sited ethnography involves studying cultural processes that are
spread across multiple locations and contexts, rather than focusing on a
single site or community. Collaborative ethnography involves working with
members of the community being studied as co-researchers and
collaborators, rather than as passive subjects or objects of study.
Cont…
• Critiques of postmodernism: Postmodernism has also been subject to
a number of critiques, particularly from those who see it as overly
skeptical, relativistic, and disconnected from political engagement.
Critics argue that postmodernism can lead to a paralysis of action and
a retreat from political engagement, as well as a tendency to prioritize
individual experience over collective struggle and social change.
Cont…
• In conclusion, postmodernism has had a significant impact on
anthropology, challenging many of its traditional assumptions and
methods and leading to new approaches to studying cultures and
societies. While it has been subject to critiques and controversies,
postmodernism remains an important intellectual and theoretical
framework for understanding the complex and dynamic nature of
human experience and culture.