Advanced Geographic

Information Systems
Module-5
Syllabus
UNIT V
Advanced Spatial Data Analysis and Modelling: Trend surface analysis,
Spatial interpolation, fuzzy analysis, GIS analytical models: Digital
Terrain Models, Hydrologic modelling, Spatial Multi Criteria Analysis.
TREND SURFACE ANALYSIS
TREND SURFACE ANALYSIS
• Trend surface analysis is a technique used in spatial data analysis to model
and analyze the trends or patterns in a continuous surface across a
geographic area.
• It is particularly useful when dealing with elevation data or other
continuous variables that exhibit spatial patterns.
• The goal of trend surface analysis is to fit a mathematical surface to the
data points in order to identify and quantify the underlying trend or
pattern.

1. Data Preparation 4. Residual Analysis

2. Trend Surface Model Selection 5. Visualization and Interpretation
3. Surface Fitting 6. Validation and Prediction
TREND SURFACE ANALYSIS
1. Data Preparation
• The first step is to gather the data points representing the continuous variable of
interest, such as elevation measurements.
• These data points should be spatially distributed across the study area and have
associated coordinate locations.
2. Trend Surface Model Selection
• Next, step is to select the appropriate trend surface model that best represents
the spatial pattern in the data.
• Commonly used models include linear, quadratic, or higher-order polynomial
models.
• The choice of the model depends on the complexity and curvature of the
underlying trend in the data.
TREND SURFACE ANALYSIS
TREND SURFACE ANALYSIS
TREND SURFACE ANALYSIS
3. Surface Fitting
• The selected trend surface model is then fitted to the data points.
• This involves estimating the coefficients or parameters of the model that
best fit the observed data.
• This can be done using techniques like least squares regression or weighted
regression.
4. Residual Analysis
• Once the trend surface is fitted, the residuals, which are the differences
between the observed data and the fitted values, are calculated.
• Residual analysis helps assess the goodness-of-fit of the model and identify
any remaining spatial patterns or anomalies in the data.
TREND SURFACE ANALYSIS
5. Visualization and Interpretation
• The fitted trend surface can be visualized as a continuous surface representing the
trend or pattern across the study area.
• Visualization techniques include contour plots, surface plots, or heat maps.
• Interpretation of the trend surface involves analyzing the spatial patterns, identifying
areas of high or low values, and understanding the underlying processes or factors
driving the observed trend.
6. Validation and Prediction
• The trend surface model can be further validated by comparing it with independent
validation data, assessing the accuracy of predicted values, or using cross-validation
techniques.
• Additionally, the trend surface model can be used to predict values at unsampled
locations within the study area based on the estimated trend.
SPATIAL INTERPOLATION
SPATIAL INTERPOLATION
• Spatial interpolation is a technique used in GIS to estimate values at
unsampled locations based on the values observed at sampled locations
within a geographic area.
• It is commonly used when dealing with spatially sparse or unevenly
distributed data, and the goal is to create a continuous surface
representation of the variable of interest across the entire study area.
Steps involved in spatial interpolation
1. Data Collection
2. Interpolation Method Selection
3. Interpolation Process
4. Validation and Error Analysis
5. Visualization and Analysis
SPATIAL INTERPOLATION
1. Data Collection
• The first step is to gather the sampled data points representing the variable
of interest. Example: Elevation, Rainfall, Temperature etc.
• These data points should have associated coordinate locations and
attribute values.
2. Interpolation Method Selection
• Next, we should select an appropriate interpolation method that best suits
the characteristics of your data and the spatial pattern we wish to capture.
Example: Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), Kriging, Radial Basis Functions
(RBF), Spline Interpolation.
SPATIAL INTERPOLATION
Interpolation Methods
• Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW): This method assigns weights to nearby data points based
on their proximity to the unsampled location. Closer points have higher influence on the
estimated value.
• Kriging: Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation method that considers both the spatial
autocorrelation and the variability of the data. It estimates values based on a spatially
weighted combination of nearby data points, taking into account the spatial relationships
and the underlying variogram model.
• Radial Basis Functions (RBF): RBF interpolation uses mathematical functions to estimate
values based on the distance between data points and the unsampled location. Common RBF
functions include Gaussian, multiquadric, and inverse multiquadric.
• Spline Interpolation: Spline interpolation fits a smooth curve or surface through the data
points to estimate values at unsampled locations. It minimizes the overall curvature of the
surface while passing through the observed data points.
SPATIAL INTERPOLATION
3. Interpolation Process
• Once the interpolation method is selected, it is applied to the data points to estimate values at the
unsampled locations.
• The method calculates the weighted average or generates a mathematical surface that represents the
variable of interest across the study area.
4. Validation and Error Analysis
• To validate the accuracy of the interpolation results, the interpolated results are compared with
independent validation data, if available.
• Various statistical measures, such as root mean square error (RMSE) or cross-validation, can be used
to assess the error and reliability of the interpolated values.
5. Visualization and Analysis
• The interpolated surface can be visualized using contour plots, heat maps, or surface representations
to understand the spatial distribution of the variable of interest.
• It enables further analysis and exploration of the continuous variation and spatial patterns within the
study area.
FUZZY ANALYSIS
FUZZY ANALYSIS
• Fuzzy analysis in GIS refers to the use of fuzzy logic and fuzzy sets theory to handle
and analyze spatial data that have imprecision, uncertainty, or vagueness.
• Fuzzy logic is a mathematical framework that allows for the representation of
partial truths or degrees of membership, rather than strict binary values.
• Fuzzy analysis extends traditional GIS capabilities by accommodating more
nuanced and flexible reasoning about spatial phenomena.
• Fuzzy logic is one type of commonly used type of site selection. It assigns
membership values to locations that range from 0 to 1. 0 indicates non-
membership or an unsuitable site, while 1 indicates membership or a suitable site.
• Fuzzy logic site selection is different from other site selection methods because it
represents a possibility of an ideal site, rather than a probability and it is
commonly used to find ideal habitat for plants and animals or other sites that are
not specifically chosen by a user or developer.
FUZZY ANALYSIS
How to Use Fuzzy Logic Site Selection
• Like other site selection methods, fuzzy logic uses a standard workflow to ensure that all
necessary steps are followed.
• It is different from other methods however because it is much more complex and uses a
continuum of values between 0 (completely false or unsuitable) and 1 (completely true or
suitable) rather than a simple yes or no.
• Fuzzy logic is capable of examining conditions that can be both true and false at the same time.
The standard workflow for fuzzy logic is as follows:
1. Define the problem and site selection criteria
2. Collect criteria layers
3. Assign fuzzy membership values
4. Perform fuzzy overlay
5. Verify and apply results
FUZZY ANALYSIS
• Defining the problem and selection criteria is the most important step in
fuzzy logic site selection because it helps the user to determine the type of
data needed for the analysis.
• Fuzzy logic membership is an important reclassification step.
• Reclassification is used to simplify the interpretation of raster data by
changing a single input value into a new output value.
• Fuzzy overlay allows the user to overlay the various reclassified layers to
analyze the possibility of a specific occurrence.
• This can then be used to verify the results and use them to choose the best
site.
FUZZY ANALYSIS
Fuzzy Logic Membership
• Fuzzy logic membership helps the user to determine the likelihood that a site is suitable or unsuitable.
• This step assigns values from 0 to 1 with 0 being not likely or unsuitable and 1 being most likely or
suitable.
• Thus, the higher the fuzzy membership value, the more ideal the site.
• When assigning fuzzy membership values it is important to understand the four types of membership
and choose the one that best fits the analysis criteria.
• These membership types are as follows:
1. Linear – High fuzzy membership is assigned to large or small values and fuzzy membership decreases
at a constant rate.
2. Small – High fuzzy membership is assigned to small values.
3. Large – High fuzzy membership is assigned to large values.
4. MS Small – High fuzzy membership is assigned to values less than the mean.
5. MS Large – High fuzzy membership is assigned to values more than the mean.
6. Near – High fuzzy membership is assigned to mid-range values.
FUZZY ANALYSIS
Fuzzy Logic Overlay
• Once the appropriate fuzzy membership value for data criteria is assigned several reclassified surfaces showing
a value from 0 to 1 are generated.
• The next step in applying fuzzy logic is to overlay these surfaces.
• This step is similar to weighted site selection (a site selection type that allows users to rank raster cells and
assign a relative importance value to each layer) because the different reclassified surfaces are compared to
each other.
• To complete this step, one of several fuzzy overlay types must be chosen. The fuzzy overlay types are as
follows:
1. And – This type is best used for finding the locations that meet all criteria.
2. Or – This type is best used for finding the locations that meet any of the criteria.
3. Product – This type is best used for finding the best locations with combined input fuzzy membership values
(ESRI).
4. Sum – This type is best used for finding all possibly suitable locations with combined input fuzzy
membership values.
5. Gamma – This is a complex fuzzy overlay type that requires expert knowledge and a combination of various
sub-models.
FUZZY ANALYSIS
When to Use Fuzzy Logic
• Because there are several different site selection methods it is important to understand
when to use a complex method like fuzzy logic.
• Fuzzy logic site selection is most commonly in projects that have an element of
uncertainty or where the user cannot state specifically where a site would be as would
be the case of an ideal site found with weighted site selection.
• Fuzzy logic site selection is also ideal for analyzing data that does not have discrete
polygons and boundaries as would be the case with a new sporting venue for instance.
• Instead, fuzzy logic can be used to look at areas of deer habitat based on a factor such
as elevation.
• Potential habitat types could be classified based on elevation levels. In this example,
low elevations would be considered suitable habitat and given values close to 1 while
high elevations would be unsuitable and have values closer to 0.
GIS ANALYTICAL MODELS
GIS ANALYTICAL MODELS
• GIS analytical models refer to a set of methods, techniques, and algorithms used within
GIS to analyze, interpret, and derive insights from spatial data.
• These models provide a structured framework for performing various spatial analyses
and are crucial for making informed decisions, understanding spatial patterns, and
solving real-world problems.
Some commonly used GIS analytical models

1. Spatial Query and Selection Models
2. Geoprocessing Models
3. Network Analysis Models
4. Spatial Interpolation Models
5. Spatial Statistics Models
6. Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) Models
7. Terrain Analysis Models
8. Hydrological Modeling
9. Viewshed and Line of Sight Analysis
10. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Models
11. Spatial Simulation Models
12. Time-Series Analysis Models
13. 3D Analysis Models
14. Geostatistical Models
15. Emergency Response and Disaster Management Models
DIGITAL TERRAIN MODELS
DIGITAL TERRAIN MODELS
• A Digital Terrain Model (DTM) is a representation of the Earth's surface as a digital
dataset, capturing the elevation or height values of terrain features across a continuous
area.
• DTM is a crucial component in GIS, remote sensing, and various geospatial applications.
• It provides essential information for terrain analysis, cartography, urban planning,
hydrology, environmental modeling, and more.
Elevation Data
• A DTM consists of elevation values, typically measured in meters or feet above a
reference point (such as sea level).
• These elevation values are assigned to specific geographic coordinates, creating a
gridded dataset that represents the elevation of the terrain.
DIGITAL TERRAIN MODELS
Data Sources
Elevation data for creating DTMs can be acquired from various sources,
including:
• Remote Sensing: Satellite imagery, LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging),
SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar), and aerial photography.
• Ground Surveys: GPS (Global Positioning System) measurements, total
station surveys, and leveling.
• Existing Maps: Digital elevation models derived from contour lines or spot
heights on topographic maps.
DIGITAL TERRAIN MODELS
Data Formats
DTMs are often stored in different raster formats, such as GeoTIFF, ASCII, or
Esri GRID, making them compatible with GIS software and other geospatial
tools.
Accuracy and Resolution
• The accuracy of a DTM depends on the data source and the methods used
to collect and process the elevation data.
• High-resolution DTMs capture finer terrain details, while lower-resolution
DTMs are suitable for broader-scale analysis.
DIGITAL TERRAIN MODELS
Digital Surface Model (DSM)
• While a DTM represents the bare Earth's terrain, a DSM includes the
elevation values of all surface features, such as buildings, vegetation, and
infrastructure.
• A DSM is often used for urban planning and vegetation analysis.
Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
• The term "Digital Elevation Model" is often used interchangeably with
DTM, referring to a digital representation of the Earth's terrain.
DIGITAL TERRAIN MODELS
DIGITAL TERRAIN MODELS
Methods for obtaining elevation data used to create DEMs
• Lidar
• Stereo photogrammetry from aerial surveys
• Structure from motion/ Multi-view stereo applied to aerial photography
• Block adjustment from optical satellite imagery
• Interferometry from radar data
• Real Time Kinematic GPS
• Topographic maps
• Theodolite or total station
• Doppler radar
• Surveying and mapping drones
 DIGITAL TERRAIN MODELS
Common uses of DEMs include:
• Extracting terrain parameters for geomorphology geography
• Modeling water flow for hydrology or mass • Geographic Information Systems(GIS)
movement (for example avalanches and landslides) • Engineering and infrastructure design
• Modeling soils wetness with Cartographic Depth to • Satellite navigation(for example GPS and GLONASS)
Water Indexes (DTW-index) • Line-of-sight analysis
• Creation of relief maps • Base mapping
• Rendering of 3D visualizations. • Flight simulation
• 3D flight planning and TERCOM • Precision farming and forestry
• Creation of physical models (including raised relief • Surface analysis
maps) • Intelligent transportation systems(ITS)
• Rectification of aerial photography or satellite • Auto safety / Advanced Driver Assistance
imagery Systems(ADAS)
• Reduction (terrain correction) of gravity • Archaeology
measurements (gravimetry, physical geodesy)
• Terrain analysis in geomorphology and physical
HYDROLOGIC MODELLING
HYDROLOGIC MODELLING
• Hydrologic modeling is a process used to simulate and analyze the
movement of water through the hydrological cycle, including its
distribution, flow, and interactions within a specific geographic area.
• It is an essential tool in water resources management, environmental
planning, flood prediction, watershed management, and the study of
hydrological processes.
• Hydrologic models help us understand how precipitation, runoff,
evaporation, infiltration, and other factors contribute to the behavior of
water in a watershed or river basin.
Components of Hydrologic Modeling
1. Watershed Characterization
• The first step in hydrologic modeling involves defining the geographic boundaries of the
watershed or river basin under study.
• This includes gathering data on topography, land use, soil types, vegetation, and
climate.
2. Precipitation Inputs
• Accurate precipitation data is crucial for hydrologic modeling. Rainfall and snowfall data
are used to estimate the amount of water entering the system.
3. Runoff and Infiltration
• Hydrologic models simulate the movement of water as it flows over the land surface
(runoff) and infiltrates into the ground.
• These models take into account factors such as land slope, soil properties, land cover,
and antecedent moisture conditions.
Components of Hydrologic Modeling
4. Evapotranspiration
• Models consider the process by which water is lost from the land surface
due to evaporation and transpiration from plants.
• This component is essential for understanding the water balance within the
watershed.
5. Flow Routing
• Once runoff is generated, hydrologic models simulate the flow of water
through the river network.
• Flow routing accounts for factors like channel characteristics, flow
velocities, and travel times.
Types of Hydrologic Models
1. Empirical Models
• These models are based on observed relationships between hydrological variables, such
as rainfall and runoff.
• They are relatively simple and use statistical techniques to estimate runoff based on
historical data.
Ex: Rational Method, Curve Number Method, Unit Hydrograph Method etc.
2. Conceptual Models
• Conceptual models describe the hydrologic processes using simplified equations and
parameters.
• They provide a conceptual understanding of the system's behavior but may not capture
all complexities.
Ex: Tank Models, Cascade Models, Soil Moisture Balance Models, Hydrological Response
Units (HRUs) etc.
Types of Hydrologic Models
3. Distributed Models
• These models divide the watershed into grid cells and simulate hydrologic
processes within each cell.
• They account for spatial variability in precipitation, land use, and soil
characteristics.
Ex: SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool), HEC-HMS, MIKE SHE etc.
4. Physically-based Models
• Physically-based models simulate hydrologic processes using detailed equations
that represent the physical behavior of water movement.
• They require extensive data inputs and are more complex but provide a detailed
representation of the system.
Ex: MODFLOW, SWMM, HYDRUS etc.
Applications of Hydrologic Modeling
1. Flood Prediction and Management: Hydrologic models are used to simulate rainfall-
runoff relationships and predict potential flooding events. This information helps in
designing flood control measures and emergency response planning.
2. Water Resources Management: Models assist in assessing water availability,
groundwater recharge, and streamflow conditions. They aid in optimizing water
allocation for various uses, such as agriculture, industry, and domestic consumption.
3. Watershed Management: Hydrologic models guide watershed management strategies,
including erosion control, land use planning, and the protection of water quality.
4. Climate Change Impact Assessment: Models help understand how changes in
precipitation patterns and temperature due to climate change may affect hydrological
processes and water resources.
5. Environmental Impact Assessment: Models assess the potential impact of land
development, infrastructure projects, or pollution on water bodies and aquatic
ecosystems.
SPATIAL MULTI CRITERIA
ANALYSIS
SPATIAL MULTI CRITERIA ANALYSIS
• Spatial Multi-Criteria Analysis (SMCA) is a decision-support technique used
in GIS to evaluate and analyze multiple criteria or factors in a spatial
context.
• SMCA helps in making informed decisions by considering various spatial
and non-spatial factors that influence a particular decision or problem.
• It combines geographic data, analytical methods, and user preferences to
assess the suitability, feasibility, or desirability of different alternatives or
options.
Key Components of Spatial Multi-Criteria Analysis
1. Criteria and Factors
• SMCA involves identifying and defining the criteria or factors that are relevant to the
decision-making process.
• These criteria can be both spatial and non-spatial, and they represent the attributes that
influence the choice among different alternatives.
• For example, in site selection for a new facility, criteria could include proximity to
transportation networks, land cost, environmental constraints, and population density.
2. Data Collection and Preparation
• Geographic data related to the identified criteria are collected and prepared for analysis.
• This may involve gathering spatial data such as land use, elevation, transportation
networks, and social factors.
• Data may be collected from various sources, including satellite imagery, surveys, and
existing databases.
Key Components of Spatial Multi-Criteria Analysis
3. Weighting and Standardization
• SMCA requires assigning weights to each criterion to indicate its relative
importance in the decision-making process.
• The weights reflect the preferences of the decision-maker or stakeholders.
• Data standardization may also be necessary to bring different criteria to a common
scale or unit.
4. Spatial Analysis
• Various spatial analysis techniques are applied to process and analyze the data.
• Techniques can include overlay analysis, proximity analysis, spatial interpolation,
and other GIS operations.
• These analyses generate spatial patterns that represent the suitability or
preference for each alternative under consideration.
Key Components of Spatial Multi-Criteria Analysis
5. Mapping and Visualization
• The results of the analysis are often visualized through maps, graphs, or
charts.
• These visual representations provide a clear understanding of the spatial
distribution of the alternatives' suitability or desirability.
6. Decision and Sensitivity Analysis
• The final step in SMCA involves making a decision based on the analysis
results.
• Sensitivity analysis may be performed to assess the impact of changes in
criteria weights or data inputs on the final decision.
THANK YOU