GOVT KAKTIYA PG COLLEGE JAGDALPUR

Topic : - Comarative account of limb and girdle

GUIDED BY…

 DR. SUSHIL KUMAR

 PAPER – first
DUTTA
 comparative anatomy of
 MRS KALPANA
vertebrates
MANDAVI

SUBMITTED BY AMAR  UNIT -II

 DR. SHALINI GUPTA
 Kishan kumar marawi NAG
 Holesh sahu M.SC. – ZOO II SEM

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 sysnopsis
 INTRODUCTION
 OSTEOLOGY
 SKELETON TYPE
 EXOSKELETON
 ENDOSKELETON
 ADAPTATION
 HOMOLOGOUS ORGAN
 ANALOGOUS ORGAN
 GIRDLES (1.) – pectoral …….(a) fore limb
(2.) – pelvic ………..(b) hind limb
 IMPORTANCE
 CONCLUTION
 REFRENCE
 INTRODUCTION

 Skeleton can be defined as a hard framework of the

body which supports soft structures.
 This is composed of bones, cartilages and ligaments.
 The skeleton is responsible for the maintenance of
shape, flexibility as well as locomotion of the body.
 OSTEOLOGY

“The study of the structure and functon of the skeleton and bony structure
called osteology.”
. Osteology derived from the greek word

 Osteon-bones
 Logos-study
 It deals with the components of skeleton. Bones are
principal components of a skeleton.
 It act as levers for muscle, protect certain
viscera,manufacture blood cells and act as reservoir of
mineral salt also.
 EXOSKELETON

 An exoskeleton is a skeleton that develops on the outside of the body of an

animal.
 An exoskeleton is an external skeleton that consists of a hard encasement
on the surface of an organism. For example, the shells of crabs and insects
are exoskeletons .
 This skeleton type provides defence against predators, supports the body,
and allows for movement through the contraction of attached muscles.
 ENDOSKELETON
 The skeleton refers to the bones inside the body, which is describing as an
endoskeleton means internal framework of bones.
 The endoskeleton is an important system inside the body. On the basis of
endoskeleton, two distinct divisions in the Fauna have been made- one Chordata
and other Non-chordata, with and without internal framework.
 Broadly endoskeletal system is differentiated into three parts as follows:

 Axial skeleton: It includes Skull, and bones of face.

 Vertebral column: It includes vertebrae, ribs and sternum.
 Appendicular skeleton: It includes Girdles and limb bones.
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

 It includes any projection from the body that plays a role in locomotion or
steering. Limbs consist of three major divisions: the proximal, medial, and distal
divisions.
 Proximal division: the bone that articulates with the girdle and projects laterally
from the body: Humerus (anterior limb)/ Femur (posterior limb).
 Medial division: the two bones that articulate with the proximal bone at the knee
or elbow. Distally, they articulate with the bones of the hand or foot. a- Radius
and ulna (anterior limb) b- Tibia and fibula (posterior limb)
 Distal division is made by three subdivisions:
 a- Carpus or wrist (anterior limb)/ tarsus or ankle (posterior limb)
 b-Palm and sole bones: metacarpal (anterior limb) /metatarsals (posterior limb)
 c-the free portion of each digit: phalanges
 DEVELOPMENT OF LIMBS IN

TETRAPODS
Limbs formation begin in the morphogenetic limb field, as mesenchymal cells
from the lateral plate mesoderm proliferate to the point that they cause the
ectoderm above to bulge out, formation a limb bud.
 The upper and lower limbs (including the shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle)
begin development in the 4th week of gestation. Usually the upper limb begins
development first, with the lower limb often lagging 2-3 days behind. The limbs
are well differentiated by week 8.
 In this article we shall cover the basic embryological development of the limbs,
as well as some important clinical conditions.
 The limb buds are the precursor structures of the limbs. Their formation begins
in the 4th week, with the activation of mesenchymal cells in the somatic layer of
lateral plate mesoderm.
 ADAPTATION
 HOMOLOGOUS ORGAN
 ANALOGOUS ORGAN

 HOMOLOGOUS ORGAN:-
 RICHARD OWEN(1804-1892)introduced the term homologous.
 The organs which have same structure but are different in function
are called homologous organs.
 Homologous structure are a result of divergent evolution.
 Homology indicates common ancestry.
 Example- forelimbs of mammals.
 ANALOGOUS ORGAN:-

 The organ which have similar function but are different in their
structural details and origin are called analogous organs
 The analogous structure are the result of convergent evolution.

 EXAMPLE-
1. Wings of bat and birds.
2. Eyes of octopus and eye of mammals
3. Flippers of penguin(Bird) and dolphin(Mammals).
4. Hands of mammals and trunk of the elephant.
 GIRDLES
 Girdle are the part of skeleton system which attaches the axial skeleton on the appendicular
skeleton.
 They provide support to the limbs and help in articulation .
 Gidle are two type on the basis of their position on the body namely : -
(1) Pectoral girdle (2) pelvic girde

i. Pectoral girdle of scoliodon

 Pectoral girdle. V-shaped structure made up of right and left halves
united mid-ventrally. Each half is made up of coracoid portion, scapular
portion and suprascapular portion. Pectoral girdle is embedded in lateral
and ventral body wall posterior to gills in the region of heart..
 Pectoral fins :- A pectoral fill is made up of basal and radial cartilages.
Basal cartilages are propterygium, mesopterygium and metapterygium.
Proximally these cartilages articulate with scapular and coracoid portions
of pectoral girdle. From basal cartilages extend numerous radial cartilages
or somactidia, each made up of 2 or 3 segments.
 (2) Pectoral girdle of amphibians

 Pectoral girdle is found embedded in the body wall in thoracic region. It is

composed of two identical halves which are permanently attached with sternum.
 Each half is composed of scapular and coracoid regions.
 Scapular region consists of suprascapula and scapula. Suprascapula is a broad,
flat and rectangular bone having free calcified cartilaginous margin. Scapula is
also flat and contains a cup-like glenoid cavity for humerus.
 Coracoid region is made up of two bones, namely clavicle and coracoid, and two
cartilages viz. epicoracoid and precoracoid.
 Pectoral girdle protects viscera and gives support to limbs. Other structures seen
regarding sternum are episternum, omosternum xiphisternum and mesosternum.
 (3) Pectoral girdle of reptiles

 Each half is composed of suprascapula, scapula, coracoid, interclavicle

and clavicle.
 Suprascapula :- It is flattened, calcified and cartilaginous plate,
articulating ventrally with scapula. Its dorsal margin is free and curved.
 Scapula :- It is completely ossified, flattened and unfenestrated plate,
articulating with suprascapula and coracoid.
 Coracoid :- It is a flat bone partly ossified and partly cartilaginous. It
contains two large fenestrae, which divide ossified region into three parts,
namely anterior procoracoid, middle mesocoracoid and
posterior broad coracoid proper. Inner end of coracoid lying over
fenestrae is cartilaginous and termed epicoracoid. At the posterior
junction of scapula and coracoid is a cup-shaped glenoid cavity
for the head of humerus.
 Interclavicle or episternum :- T-shaped investing bone between two
halves.
Clavicle :- Short, curved dermal bone, articulating with suprascapula and
interclavicle.
 (4) Pectoral girdle of aves

 Pectoral girdle is peculiarly inverted L-shaped (7) and composed of

coracoid, scapula and clavicle.
 Coracoid :- (i) It is a large, stout and rod-shaped bone. (ii) Distal end
is produced into a hook-like acrocoracoid process, while proximal end
is flattened to articulate with coracoid groove on the antero-Iateral
border of sternum. (iii) Below acrocoracoid process, the inner surface
of coracoid articulates with scapula, while outer surface contains a
cup-shaped glenoid cavity for humerus head.
 Scapula :- (i) It is a sabre-like bone. (ii) Anteriorly it contains a cup-
shaped depression, forming part of glenoid cavity and on inner side it
has an acromian process.
 Clavicles :- (i) They fuse to form a V-shaped furcula or merry thought
or wishbone. (ii) Each clavicle is a rod-shaped bone. (iii) Ventrally
both clavicles unite to form interclavicle or hypocleidium.
 (5) Pectoral girdle of mammals

 Each half of pectoral girdle is made up of clavicle and

scapula-coracoid.
 Scapula-coracoid :-
o It is a triangular replacing bone.
o The apex contains a concavity called glenoid
cavity for humerus head.
o Over glenoid cavity hangs a coracoid process.
o A distinct vertical spine divides outer surface of
scapula and it terminates below into an acromian
process, which further gives posteriorly a
metacromian process.
 FORE LIMBS(UPPER LIMB)
 30 bones form each upper limb .
 Grouped into bones of the .
 Arm
 Forearm
 Hand

ARM
 Region of the upper limb between the shoulder and elbow
 HUMERUS
o The only bone of the arm.
o Longest and strongest bone of the upper limb.
o Articulates with the scapula at the shoulder.
o Articulates with the radius and ulna at the elbow.
o Many structures of the humerus provide sites for muscle attachment.
o
 FOREARM

 RADIOULNA
o Formed from the radius and ulna
o The radius is lateral and the ulna is medial
RADIUS
 Superior surface of the head of the radius articulates with the capitulum
 Medially – the head of the radius articulates with the radial notch of the ulna
 Contributes heavily to the wrist joint
• Distal radius articulates with carpal bones
• When radius moves, the hand moves with it
ULNA
 Main bone responsible for forming the elbow joint with the humerus
 Hinge joint allows forearm to bend on arm
 Distal end is separated from carpals by fibrocartilage
 Plays little to no role in hand movement
 HANDS
 Includes the following bones
 Carpus – wrist
 Metacarpals – palm
 Phalanges – fingers
 CARPUS
 Forms the true wrist – the proximal region of the hand
 Gliding movements occur between carpals
 Composed of eight marble-sized bones
 Are arranged in two irregular rows
 Proximal row from lateral to medial
 Scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, and pisiform
 Distal row from lateral to medial
 Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate
 A mnemonic to help remember carpals
 Sally left the party to take Carmen home
 METACARPUS
 Five metacarpals radiate distally from the wrist
 Metacarpals form the palm
 Numbered 1–5, beginning with the pollex (thumb)
 Articulate proximally with the distal row of carpals
 Articulate distally with the proximal phalanges
 PHALANGES
 Numbered 1–5, beginning with the pollex (thumb)
 Except for the thumb, each finger has three phalanges
 Proximal, middle, and distal
AMPHIBIA REPTILE

AVES MAMMALS
 PELVIC GIRDLE
The pelvic girdle or the bony pelvis is a bony ring, formed by the left and
right hip bones and the sacrum, and it surrounds the pelvic cavity, and
connects the vertebral column to the lower limbs.

Pelvis girdle of fishes

 Pelvic girdle :- Made up of a simple flattened and transverse
cartilaginous rod called ischiopubic bar, having a small blunt iliac
process on either side projecting above the acetabular facet for
articulation of the basal cartilage of pelvic fin.
 Pelvic fins :- Skeleton of a pelvic fin has a single large and curved
basal cartilage called as basipterygium. From basipterygium 15 or
more slender radials or somactidia are given. Associated with
pelvic girdle in male dog-fish are claspers. Each clasper contains
accessory piece, dorsal covering plate, ventral sheath plate and
style.
 (2) Pelvis girdle of amphibians

 Two pelvic girdles form a V -shaped structure. Each half of girdle is

composed of ilium, ischium and pubis which unite posteriorly into a
vertical disc bearing a cup-shaped cavity, called acetabulum, on either
side.
 Ilium :-
 It is a long bone meeting with transverse process of ninth vertebra.
 Dorsally it contains a distinct iliac crest.
 Two ilia meet posteriorly at an iliac symphysis.
 Pubis :- It is a reduced calcified cartilage forming major part of
acetabulum. The pubic cartilages of both sides are completely fused.
 Ischium :- Two ischia give rise to one-third of disc and completely fuse
together at an ischiatic symphysis.
 (3) Pelvis girdle og reptiles

• It is composed of usual three bones, namely ilium, pubis and ischium.

• Three bones are very hard and solid.
• Externally, at the junction of three bones is a large acetabulum for head of femur.
• Joints are distinct.

• Ilium :-
• It is a rod-shaped bone constituting major part of acetabulum.
• It articulates with sacral vertebrae.
• It has a pre-acetabular process.

• Pubis :-
• It is a curved bone.
• Two pubes meet at a pubic symphysis, which contains a cartilage called epipubis.
• Pubis gives out a small rod-like process called prepubis.
• Pubis contributes to one-third of acetabulum and is perforated by a small foramen for obturator nerve.

• Ischium :-
• Two ischia are flat and curved bones meeting at an ischiatic symphysis.
• From ischiatic symphysis, a rod-shaped hypoischium extends backwards to support ventral wall of cloaca
 (4) Pelvic girdle of aves
 Although pelvic girdle of fowl contains usual three parts, namely ilium,
ischium and pubis,
 absence of ventral symphysis due to large eggs,
 firm union with vertebral column, and incomplete ossification of
acetabulum.
 Ilium :-
 Ilium is a long lamellar bone differentiated into pre-acetabular and
postacetabular parts.
 Ilium forms dorsal part of the perforated acetabulum.
 Ischium :-
 It extends behind acetabulum.
 It is fused with ilium posteriorly and separated anteriorly by an ilio-
ischiatic foramen.
 Pubis :-
 It is a slender bone forming ventral part of acetabulum.
 Behind acetabulum pubis is separated from ischium by an obturator
foramen.
 Anteriorly it gives a small prepubic process.
 (5) Pelvis girdle of mammals
•Two halves of pelvic girdles are united at a pubic symphysis. Each half or
innominatum contains ilium, ischium and pubis. Three bones are fused
together forming hip bone. External to hip bone is a cup-shaped
acetabulum.
•Ilium :-
• It is a blade-like bone.
• It articulates with sacrum.
•Ischium :-
• It forms postero-dorsal part of innominate bone.
• Posterior most part is thickened forming an ischial tuberosity.
•Pubis :-
• It is a small bone forming ventro-lateral part of girdle.
• A small cotyloid bone prevents pubis from reaching upto
acetabulum.
• Pubis is separated from ischium by a large obturator foramen.
 HIND LIMBS(LOWER LIMB)
 Carries the entire weight of the erect body
 Bones of lower limb are thicker and stronger than those of upper limb
 Divided into three segments
 Thigh, leg, and foot
THIGH
 The region of the lower limb between the hip and the knee
 FEMUR – the single bone of the thigh
 Longest and strongest bone of the body
 Ball-shaped head articulates with the acetabulum
 PATELLA
 Triangular sesamoid bone
 Imbedded in the tendon that secures the quadriceps muscles
 Protects the knee anteriorly
 Improves leverage of the thigh muscles across the knee.
 LEG
 Refers to the region of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle
 Composed of the tibia and fibula
 TIBIA – more massive medial bone of the leg
 Receives weight of the body from the femur
 FIBULA – stick-like lateral bone of the leg
 Interosseous membrane
 Connects the tibia and fibula
 Tibia articulates with femur at superior end
 Forms the knee joint
 Tibia articulates with talus at the inferior end
 Forms the ankle joint
 Fibula does not contribute to the knee joint
 Stabilizes the ankle joint
 THE FOOT

 Foot is composed of
 Tarsus, metatarsus, and the phalanges
 Important functions
 Supports body weight
 Acts as a lever to propel body forward when walking
 Segmentation makes foot pliable and adapted to uneven ground
 TARSUS
 Makes up the posterior half of the foot
 Contains seven bones called tarsals
 Body weight is primarily borne by the talus and calcaneus
 META TARSUS
 Consists of five small long bones called metatarsals
 Numbered 1–5 beginning with the hallux
(great toe)
 First metatarsal supports body weight
 PHALANGES

 14 phalanges of the toes

 Smaller and less nimble than those of the fingers
 Structure and arrangement are similar to phalanges of fingers
 Except for the great toe, each toe has three phalanges
Proximal, middle, and distal
AMPHIBIA REPTILE

AVES MAMMALS
 SUMMARY

 Every single person or animal has a skeletons made up of many bones.these bones
gives our body structure, let we move in many ways, rotect our internal organs and
more. It is a matore site for red marrow for production of blood cells, and plays a
role in metabolism of minerals such as calcium and phosphorus.
 reference

Modern Text Book of Zoology Vertebrates :- by R.L.Kotpal .

 Text Book of Vertebrate Zoology :- by J. S. Kingsley .

Hyman's Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy :- by Marvalee H. Wake .

Textbook of Vertebrate Zoology :- by S. Prasad .

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