QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

UNIT IV &V
Course No: 210
GE-UL: 10
Sem-II
Prof. Sujeet Subhash Tambe
B.E(Chemical), M.M.S(Operations),
UGC-NET(Management), SET(Management), Ph.D (Pursuing)
 Projective Techniques
Projective techniques (or what are sometimes called as indirect interviewing
techniques) for the collection of data have been developed by psychologists
to use projections of respondents for inferring about underlying motives,
urges, or intentions which are such that the respondent either resists to
reveal them or is unable to figure out himself. In projective techniques the
respondent in supplying information tends unconsciously to project his
own attitudes or feelings on the subject under study. Projective techniques
play an important role in motivational researches or in attitude surveys.
 Projection
• Psychological technique to get answers without asking
a direct question
• Participants project their unconscious beliefs into
other people or objects
• Reduces threat of personal vulnerability
• Consists of a stimulus and a response
 Projection Methods

Associations Construction
Uncovers a brand’s identity or Process allows participant to
product attributes construct meaning
• Participant constructs a story or
picture from a concept
• Word association for a
• Collages are developed on a
product/brand topic
• Draw brands as • Bubble drawings or cartoon tests
people ask participant to construct a
dialog
Completion
For insight into participant’s
need-value system.
• Sentences, stories or
conversations are completed
• Ie “When I think of beer…..”
Expressive
For situations when participants
cannot describe their actions but
can demonstrate them.
• Participants role play or act out a
story
• Themes are developed based on
participants’ personal
interpretations of pictures
• House where brand lives (Bud vs
Guiness)
Types Of Projection Techniques
Pictorial Projective Technique
• Rorschach ink blot test
• Thematic appreciation test

Verbal Projective Technique

Association Technique
Word association Method

Completion Techniques
• Sentence Completion
Expressive Method Technique

Play Technique

Drawing

Painting

Role Playing
 WORD ASSOCIATION TEST
• These tests are used to extract information regarding such words
which have maximum association. In this sort of test the respondent
is asked to mention the first word that comes to mind, ostensibly
without thinking, as the interviewer reads out each word from a list. If
the interviewer says cold, the respondent may say hot and the like
ones.
Used in Advertising
Research
 Sentence Completion test
• This text happens to be an extension of word association technique

• This technique is quick and easy to use. But it often leads to

analytical problems.

• When responses happens to multidimensional

 Pictorial Projection Techniques
• Thematic apperception test (T.A.T.): The TAT consists of a set of pictures
(some of the pictures deal with the ordinary day-to-day events while others may
be ambiguous pictures)
• Rosenzweig test: This test uses a cartoon format wherein we have a series of
cartoons with words inserted in ‘balloons’ above. The respondent is asked to put
his own words in an empty balloon space provided for the purpose in the
picture.
From what the respondents write in this fashion, the study of their attitudes can
be made.
• Rorschach test: This test consists of ten cards having prints of inkblots. The
design
happens to be symmetrical but meaningless. The respondents are asked to
describe what they perceive in such symmetrical inkblots and the responses are
interpreted on the basis of some pre-determined psychological framework. This
test is frequently used but the problem of validity still remains a major problem
of this test
•Holtzman Inkblot Test (HIT): This test from W.H. Holtzman is a modification of the Rorschach Test
explained above. This test consists of 45 inkblot cards (and not 10 inkblots as we find in case of
Rorschach Test) which are based on colour, movement, shading and other factors involved in inkblot
perception. Only one response per card is obtained from the subject (or the respondent) and the
responses of a subject are interpreted at three levels of form appropriateness. Form responses are
interpreted for knowing the accuracy (F) Or inaccuracy (F–) of respondent’s percepts; shading and
colour for ascertaining his Affectional and emotional needs; and movement responses for assessing
the dynamic aspects of his life.

•Tomkins-Horn picture arrangement test: This test is designed for group administration. It consists of
twenty-five plates, each containing three sketches that may be arranged in different ways to portray
sequence of events. The respondent is asked to arrange them in a sequence which he considers as
reasonable. The responses are interpreted as providing evidence confirming certain norms,
respondent’s attitudes, etc.
Tomkins-Horn picture arrangement test
This test is designed for group administration. It consists of twenty-five
plates, each containing three sketches that may be arranged in
different ways to portray sequence of events. The respondent is asked
to arrange them in a sequence which he considers as reasonable. The
responses are interpreted as providing evidence confirming certain
norms, respondent’s attitudes, etc.
 Play Techniques
Under play techniques subjects are asked to improvise or act out a situation
in which they have been assigned various roles. The researcher may observe such traits as hostility,
dominance, sympathy, prejudice or the absence of such traits. These techniques have been used for
knowing the attitudes of younger ones through manipulation of dolls. Dolls representing different
racial groups are usually given to children who are allowed to play with them freely. The manner in
which children organise dolls would indicate their attitude towards the class of persons represented
by dolls. This is also known as doll-play test, and is used frequently in studies pertaining to
sociology. The choice of colour, form, words, the sense of orderliness and other reactions
may provide opportunities to infer deep-seated feelings.
Quizzes, tests and examinations
This is also a technique of extracting information regarding
specific ability of candidates indirectly. In this procedure both long and
short questions are framed to test through them the memorising and
analytical ability of candidates
 Sociometry
Sociometry is a technique for describing the social relationships among individuals in a group. In an
indirect way, sociometry attempts to describe attractions or repulsions between individuals by
asking them to indicate whom they would choose or reject in various situations. Thus, sociometry is
a new technique of studying the underlying motives of respondents. “Under this an attempt is
made to trace the flow of information amongst groups and then examine the ways in which new
ideas are diffused. Sociograms are constructed to identify leaders and followers.” Sociograms are
charts that depict the sociometric choices. There are many versions of the sociogram pattern and
the reader is suggested to consult specialised references on sociometry for the purpose. This
approach has been applied to the diffusion of ideas on drugs amongst medical practitioners.
The Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique

"A lot goes on in our minds that

we're not aware of. Most of what
influences what we say and do
occurs below the level of awareness.
That's why we need new
techniques: to get at hidden
knowledge - to get at what people
don't know they know.” - Zaltman
The Zaltman Metaphor
Elicitation Technique
• ProfessorPatent
at Harvard Business
Issued: School
July 25, 1995
• Member of the Executive Committee of Harvard Universit
Mind, Brain, and Behavior Interfaculty Initiative.
• Co-founder and senior partner in the research based
consulting firm of Olson Zaltman Associates
• Ph.D in sociology, MBA from University of Chicago
• Wrote - How Customers Think: Essential Insights into
the Mind of the Market and Marketing Metaphoria:
What Deep Metaphors Reveal
about the Minds of Consumers
What do you see?
What do you see?
How do we attract customers
who see everything differently?
• Average of 30,000 items
on shelves of American
supermarkets
• Introduction of 17,000
new products a year*
• We do not think
rationally about what
we buy
• “The knowledge of what
we need lies so deeply
embedded in our brains
that is rarely surfaces” –
Zaltman
Research
A Brief History
The Creation of the
ZMET Technique
• 1990 vacation in Nepal
• Asked village residents to take
pictures
• Assignment: assume you’re
going to leave this village and
move somewhere else. You
want to tell people about the
life that was here, what pictures
would you take to show them?
• Feet cut off
• Marketing through pictures
• Words, but also visual
metaphors
 The ZMET Technique
• Time
• Pre-interview
• Sensory, visual and
non-verbal
• Steps
 The Seven-step Process
• Story Telling
• Missing Pictures
• Triad Task
• Metaphor Probe/Expand
the Frame
• Sensory (Non-Visual)
Metaphors
• Vignette
• Digital Imaging
 Analysis of the ZMET
• Time
• Software
• Constructs
• Create consensus maps
 The Power Of
Metaphor

• Humans think in images, not words. Most

research tools, according to Zaltman, are
“verbocentrics.”
– Conscious thought – thoughts that we can articulate
because we are fully aware of our own existence,
sensations and cognition.
– Unconscious thought – thinking outcomes of which we are
unaware or vaguely aware and struggle to articulate,
mental activity outside conscious awareness.
• Metaphors stimulate the workings of the human mind.
Triangulation of Qualitative a n d
Q u a n t i t a t i v e R e s e a rc h
In this module we’ve dealt exclusively with
qualitative work. However, it is possible to
combine qualitative and quantitative
methods in order to increase research
quality through triangulation
 Qualitati ve
continuous collection of both sorts of data

Qua nti ta ti v e
Qualitati ve Q ua nt i t a ti v e Qualitative
exploration questionnaire deepening and
assessing results
Qua nti ta ti v e Qualitative Qua nti ta ti v e
survey field study experiment
Linking Qualitative a n d
Q u a n t i t a t i v e R esult s
Results may converge, that is, are consistent completely, in
general, by tendency or partially. For example - answers in a
representative survey may match with statements from semi-
structured interviews
Results may be complementary. Interviews can provide deeper,
more detailed explanations to complement results from a
questionnaire

Results may diverge. For example, interviews may produce views that
are different when compared to questionnaires. This would cause the
need for further research.
Triangulation of qualitative a n d
quantitative research is n o t
per s e a quality indicator for
qualitative research, but it c a n
contribute to overall quality
 Data Sets

Focus
Questionnaires
Group
s

Qualitative Re s e a rc h Triangu l ation Qua nti ta ti v e Re s e a rc h

Interviews
Lab Studies

Si ngl e C a s e s
Positioning Triangulation in t h e R e s e a rc h
P ro cess

Exploration Data Collection Data Interpretation

Generalisation
Focusing o n P ro cess a n d
Tr a n s p a re n c y
Quality in research is produced
through t h e whole process.
Questions to a s k for s e l e c t i n g a
qualitative resea rch metho d
I. What do I know about the issue of my study or how detailed
is my knowledge already?
II. How developed is the theoretical or empirical knowledge in
the literature about this issue?
III.Is my interest in more generally exploring the field and the issue
of my study?
IV. What is the background of my study and which methods fit with
this?
V. What do I want to get close to in my study?
I. Personal Experiences of a group of people / social process
II. Reconstruction of underlying research structures
Questions to a s k for s e l e c t i n g a
qualitative resea rch metho d
VI. Do I start with a focused research question right away or do I start
with an unfocused approach in order to develop the question?
VII.Which aggregate do I want to study: personal experience,
interactions or situations, or bigger entities like organisations or
discourse?
VIII.Is it more the single case I am interested in or the comparison of
various cases?
IX. Which resources (time, money, manpower, skills etc.) are available
for my study?
Questions to a s k for s e l e c t i n g a
qualitative resea rch metho d
X. What are the characteristics of the field I want to study and of the
people in it? What can you request of them and what not?
XI. What is the claim of generalisation of my study?
XII.What are the ethical issues to take into account that are
affected by selecting a specific method?
Decide and reflect carefully
whether you should use
qualitative or quantitative
research

• Why qualitative research?

• Which reasons do you have for
the one or the other?
• What are your expectations for
the qualitative research that
you are planning?
Reflect on the theoretical
background of your knowledge
interest

• What is the impact of your setting

on the research?
• How open and closed is your
access to what you want to
study?
 Plan your study carefully, but
allow for reconsidering the
steps and modifying according
to the state of play
x.
• What are the resources available
y.
for the study?
z

a • How realistic are the aims of

your research in relation to the
b
available resources
• What are necessary and
appropriate shortcuts
Plan your sampling
carefully!

• What are your cases?

• What do they stand for?
Think about whom in the field you
should contact and inform about
your research. Reflect about the
relation to establish to field
subjects
• What can you learn about your
research field and issues from
the way you get into the field
or are rejected?
Think about why you chose
your methods for collecting
data
• Is it a decision for a favourite
method or for habitual reasons?
• What could or would
alternative methods provide?
• What are the impacts of the
methods you use on your data
and your knowledge?
Plan carefully how to document
your data and research
experiences
• How exactly should you write
your notes?
• What are the influences of the
documentation on your research
and on your field subjects?
• What are the impacts of the
documentation on your methods
of collection and analysis?
Think about the way that you
want to present what you have
experienced in the field and found
in your research
• What are the target audiences of
your writing?
• What is it mainly you want to
convince them about your
research?
• What is the impact of the format
of your writing on your research
and its findings?
Plan how to establish the
quality of your research

• What are the quality criteria

your research should meet?
• How should these criteria
be realised?
• What is their impact on your
research and your field subjects or
relationships?