Life at the molecular,

cellular and tissue level

Module 1
The chemistry of life
Molecules for life: Atoms,
molecules, elements and compounds

• The atom is the smallest unit of matter that is able to take

part in a chemical reaction.
• A molecule consists of two or more chemically joined
atoms.
• An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken
down into other simpler substances. Elements are made up
of only one type of atom.
• A compound is a molecule that is built up from two or more
different elements that are chemically joined in fixed
proportions.
Molecules and compounds
essential for life
• Compounds are either organic or
inorganic:
• Inorganic compounds do not contain
carbon
• Organic compounds do contain carbon
and hydrogen
 Inorganic molecules

Are elements
Do not have a Do not contain
and simple
living origin carbon
molecules

Examples are:
Usually do not
• Water
burn in oxygen • Mineral salts
 Water

Water is the most

important organic The chemical formula for
molecule for living
organisms. Without water is H2O.
water, life is not possible.
Functions of water in living organisms

Water is the solvent in all

living organisms. A solvent
is a substance in which
another substance is biochemical reactions.
dissolved to form a
solution.
Water is the transport
Water is a reagent in
medium for nutrients and
metabolic waste products.
Water is used in
reproduction because it
provides the medium in
which sperm cells move to
reach the ova.

Water helps organisms to

Water provides the body Water acts as a lubricant by regulate or main their body
form and the shape of reducing friction, heat and temperature, and therefore
certain animals. wear between surfaces. plays a role in
thermoregulation.
 Substances
that react
Substances
readily with
that do not
water, or that
dissolve in
are water
water are
soluble are
hydrophobic
hydrophilic
(e.g. oils and
(e.g. sucrose
fats).
and table
salt).
 Mineral salts
• Mineral salts such as sodium, potassium, calcium, iron,
iodine and nitrates are simple inorganic substances.
• They are essential nutrients in the body and we cannot
survive without them.
• Mineral salts are grouped into micro-nutrients and
macro-nutrients.
• Micro-nutrients are mineral salts that living
organisms need in very small amounts (Fe, Na, I2).
• Macro-nutrients are mineral salts that living
organisms need in larger amounts (C, H, O, N, P, S,
Ca and Mg).
 Micro-nutrients needed by humans

Element Function Effects of deficiency Source

Iron (Fe) - Structural component of - Anaemia (too few red - Meat
haemoglobin (in red blood cells or too little - Fish
blood cells) haemoglobin) - Liver
- Plays a role in cellular - Tiredness and - Nuts
respiration weakness - Egg yolk
- Decreased mental - Legumes
ability
- Headaches

Iodine (I) - Structural component of - Incorrect functioning of - Sea food

the hormone thyroxin thyroid gland - Iodised table salt
- Goitre in adults
- Cretinism in children
 Macro-nutrients needed by humans
Element Function Effects of deficiency Source
Nitrogen (N) Component of amino - Slow and stunted Plant and animal protein
acids, nucleic acids and growth such as eggs, meat, fish
ATP - Metabolic activity is and beans.
negatively affected
Calcium (Ca) - Correct development - Rickets (soft and weak - Dairy products such as
of bones and teeth bones) in human milk, cheese, yoghurt
- Correct functioning of children - Green vegetables
muscles and nerves - Osteoporosis ( a
disease of the bones)
- Stunted growth
- Delayed clotting of
blood
Phosphorus (P) - Component of bone, - Abnormal functioning - Meat
teeth, nucleic acids, of muscles and - Fish
ATP and phospholipids nervous system - Egg yolk
- Correct functioning of - Unhealthy tooth and - Dairy products
muscles and nerves bone structure - grains
Potassium (K) - Muscle relaxation - Irregular heartbeat - Fruit
- Correct functioning of - Vegetables
nervous system - Grains
- Plays a role in causing
the movement of
substances across
membranes
- Plays a role in
maintaining the correct
water balance

Sodium (Na) - Plays a role in nerve - Muscle cramps - Vegetables

impulse conduction and - Abnormal functioning of - Table salt
muscle contraction nervous system
- Helps to maintain the
acid-base equilibrium
- Helps in regulating the
water balance in body
fluids
Goitre
Cretinism
Rickets
Organic molecules
Organic molecules are described according to their size.

• Monomers means single unit. They are relatively small, simple molecules.
• Polymers are larger, more complex molecules that are formed when many monomers
join. Polymers are called macromolecules because they are very large molecules

The most important organic molecules in living organisms are:

• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids – fats and oils
• Vitamins
• Nucleic acids
 Carbohydrat
es
•Molecular structure
- carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen
•Monosaccharides – single
hexagonal ring structure
(glucose, fructose, galactose)
•Disaccharides – two
saccharide rings joined
together (maltose, sucrose,
lactose)
• Polysaccharides –
more than two
saccharides joined
together (starch,
cellulose, glycogen).
 Main source of energy

Biological
Stored as starch in plants and
importance of glycogen in animals
carbohydrates
Are a structural component of
cell walls, nucleotides and
exoskeletons
 •Molecular structure:
Lipids Carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen
•Monomers:
• Fatty acids
• Glycerol
• Macromolecules:
• Fats – occur in
animals and are solid
at room temperature
• Oils – occur in plants
and are liquid at
room temperature
 Provide more
Biological Reserve source of energy per gram
energy than
importance carbohydrates.

of lipids
A layer of fat below
the skin insulates Protect the internal
the body to keep it organs
warm

Form cell Help with the

membranes and absorption of
cuticles of leaves certain fats
Cholesterol and heart
disease
• Cholesterol is a lipid and a white, wax-like
substance that is found in the human body and is
part of cell membranes.
• Excessive intake of saturated fats leads to high
cholesterol levels in the blood.
• High cholesterol levels on the blood cause fatty
deposits in arteries thereby narrowing the arteries
• This interferes with the transport of blood and can
lead to a heart attack.
Below are definitions of some of the terms that you will study
under this section. Use the glossary in your textbook to define
these new terms/words (Note: At least 2 marks are awarded if
you can define a term correctly in a test or examination).
• Amino acids – monomers of proteins
• Peptide link – bond between amino acids
• Biuret test - The chemical test used to test for the presence of proteins.
• Active site - The part of the enzyme that the substrate molecule fits into
• Substrate - The substance which an enzyme acts upon.
• Anabolic reaction – type of reaction when a complex molecule is built up
• Catabolic reaction – type of reaction when a complex molecule is broken down
• Proteins are large molecules (polymers) and are made up of the
elements carbon(C), hydrogen(H), oxygen(O) and nitrogen(N).
Some proteins also contain phosphorous (P), sulphur (S) and iron
(Fe).
Proteins
• Proteins are made up of long chains of amino acids which are the
building blocks (monomers) of proteins.
• There are about 20 different amino acids.
• The sequence and type of amino acids determine the type of
protein.
• The bond that form between two amino acids is known as a
peptide bond.
• A dipeptide is formed when two amino acids combine and a
tripeptide is formed when three amino acids combine. A
polypeptide is a long chain of amino acids linked by peptide
bonds.
• A protein consists of a chain of at least 50 and more amino acids.
• Proteins are sensitive to temperature and pH and will denature
(protein loses its shape and can no longer perform its function) at
high temperatures and extreme pH levels.
Biological importance of proteins

Proteins are building

Proteins form a
materials eg. myosin in All enzymes and some
structural component
muscles, keratin in hormones are proteins.
of cell membranes.
skin, hair and nails etc.

Chromosomes are
Proteins are sources of
made up of proteins
energy.
and DNA.
Food tests
Test for carbohydrates
Test for glucose: Benedict’s Prepare Prepare a water bath and heat the water.
solution (a blue liquid) is used to
test for glucose.
Pour Pour 5cm3 of Benedict’s solution in a test tube

Add Add a few drops of the test solution e.g. fruit juice
to the Benedict’s solution

Place Place the test tube into the water bath and observe
the colour change after a few minutes
Observations
Test for starch
Test for fats: Procedure

Grind Place Shake Filter Evaporate

Grind the test Place a small Shake the test Filter the test The ether or
material (e.g. amount of the tube and let it solution and ethanol will
peanuts). test material in stand for a few place a few evaporate and
a test tube and minutes. drops of the a translucent
add about filtrate (liquid fatty stain will
5cm3 of ether that filtered form on the
or ethanol. through) on a filter paper.
clean filter
paper.
Test for proteins – Write the procedures/steps in your notebook
Steps
1. Add protein solution to a test tube.
2. Add one pipette full of sodium hydroxide.
3. Mix the solution.
4. Add 3 – 4 drops of copper sulphate.
5. Mix the solution.
6. Observe to see if there are any colour changes.
7. Positive test result is dark blue or purple in colour.
Test for proteins

• Test for proteins: The Biuret test is used to test

for proteins.
• Grind the test material (beans) and add a little
water.
• Boil the test material until it forms a thin soup.
• Pour about 5 cm3 of the soup into a test tube
and add a few drops of dilute copper sulphate
solution to the test tube.
• Add 5 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution to the
mixture.
• Shake the test tube and heat the mixture.
• A violet (purple) colour indicates the presence
of proteins