Introduction to Information and

Communication Technology (ITC)(CS-301)

Instructor : Dr. Abdul Razzaq

Email: abdul.razzaq@mnsuam.edu.pk

ICT(CS-301)
 Lecture 03
Basic Computer Organization
& (Input-Output) Devices

Please be on time
(better: before time)
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 During the Last Lecture …
• We talked about the evolution of computers
• We discussed how the size is drastically
decreasing with time and how their capability
is increasing year by year
• We have learnt to classify computers
according to their capability and targeted
applications
• Super computers
• Mainframes
• Servers
• Desktops
• Mobile computers
 Today’s Goal

1. To find out about the essential building

blocks that make up a modern computer
OR
Let’s now find out about the essential
components that are present in every type
of computers

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 At the highest level, two things
are required for computing
Hardware: The physical equipment in a
computing environment such as the
computer and its peripheral devices
(printers, speakers, etc.)

Software: The set of instructions that

operates various parts of the hardware.
Also termed as “computer program”

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 All computers have the following
essential hardware components:
Input – the component through which a user instructs a computer
about what to do
Processor – the engine that processes the instructions given by
the user
Memory – where the processor stores information that is
required during its computations
Storage – where information that is required to be used much
later is stored
Output – the component that communicates the results of a
computation to the user

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 Basic Organization of the Computer System:

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 The System Unit and Its Components:

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 11/02/2023
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 There is another quite essential component
that is present in every computer …

????

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 The Bus!
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 Control Integer Keyboard Mouse
Unit Unit
Compact
Floating Disk
Cache
Point
Memory
Unit

Processor Hard
System Bus
Disk

Memory
Bus

Memory Printer Monitor

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 Input Devices
• Any data or instructions that are used by a
computer.
• Input devices are hardware used to translate
words, sounds, images, and actions that people
understand into a form that the system unit can
process.
• Some commonly used input devices are:

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 Input Devices
● Mouse
● Keyboard

● Joystick

● Light pen

● Camera

● Microphone

● Digitizer

● Speech Recognition devices

● Vision based devices (Seeing and

object)
● Data Scanning Devices

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 We want to learn about the microprocessor, the
key component, the brain, of a computer

We’ll learn about the function of a microprocessor

And its various sub-systems

– Bus interface unit
– Data & instruction cache memory
– Instruction decoder
– Arithmetic-Logic unit
– Floating-point unit
– Control unit
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 Microprocessor
• The key element of all computers, providing the
mathematical and decision making ability

• Current state-of-the-art microprocessors

(Pentium, Athlon, SPARC, PowerPC) contain
complex circuits consisting of tens of millions of
transistors

• They operate at ultra-fast speeds – doing over

a billion operations every second

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Made up from a semiconductor, Silicon
 Integrated Circuits
• Commonly known as an IC or a chip

• A tiny piece of Silicon that has several

electronic parts on it

• Most of the size of an IC comes form the pins

and packaging; the actual Silicon occupies a
very small piece of the volume

• The smallest components on an IC are much

smaller than the thickness of a human hair
 Those components are …
• Devices
– Transistors
– Diodes
– Resistors
– Capacitors
– Wires

• And are made of the following materials

– Silicon - semiconductor
– Copper - conductor

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 A microprocessor system?
• Microprocessors are powerful pieces of hardware, but
not much useful on their own
• Just as the human brain needs hands, feet, eyes,
ears, mouth to be useful; so does the microprocessor

• A microprocessor system is microprocessor plus all

the components it requires to do a certain task

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 The Main Memory Bottleneck
• Modern super-fast microprocessors can process a
huge amount of data in a short duration

• They require quick access to data to maximize their

performance

• If they don’t receive the data that they require, they

literally stop and wait – this results in reduced
performance and wasted power

• Current microprocessors can process an instruction in

about a ns. Time required for fetching data from main
memory (RAM) is of the order of 100 ns
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 Solution to the Bottleneck Problem
• Make the main memory faster

• Problem with that approach: The 1-ns memory is extremely

expensive as compared the currently popular 100-ns memory

• Another solution: In addition to the relatively slow main

memory, put a small amount of ultra-fast RAM right next to the
microprocessor on the same chip and make sure that frequently
used data and instructions resides in that ultra-fast memory

• Advantage: Much better overall performance due to fast

access to frequently-used data and instructions
 On-Chip Cache Memory (1)
• That small amount of memory located on the
same chip as the microprocessor is called On-
Chip Cache Memory

• The microprocessor stores a copy of frequently

used data and instructions in its cache memory

• When the microprocessor desires to look at a

piece of data, it checks in the cache first. If it is
not there, only then the microprocessor asks for
the same from the main memory
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 On-Chip Cache Memory (2)
• The small size and proximity to the
microprocessor makes access times short,
resulting in a boost in performance (it is easy to find
things in a small box placed next to you)

• Microprocessors predict what data will be

required for future calculations and pre-fetches
that data and places it in the cache so that it is
available immediately when the need arises
• The speed-advantage of cache memory is
greatly dependent on the algorithm used for
deciding about what to put in cache or not
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 Microprocessors Building Blocks

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 Microprocessor
Data
Cache
Memory
Bus Control Arithmetic
RAM Bus Unit & Logic
Interface Unit
I/O Unit
Instruction Registers
System Decoder
Bus
Floating
Point
Unit
Instruction
Cache Registers
(Data holding places)

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 That was the structure,
now let’s talk about the
language of a
microprocessor

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 Bus Interface Unit
• Receives instructions & data from main
memory

• Instructions are then sent to the instruction

cache, data to the data cache

• Also receives the processed data and sends it

to the main memory

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 Instruction Decoder
• This unit receives the programming instructions
and decodes them into a form that is
understandable by the processing units, i.e. the
ALU or FPU

• Then, it passes on the decoded instruction to

the ALU or FPU

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 Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
• Also known as the “Integer Unit”

• It performs whole-number math calculations (subtract,

multiply, divide, etc) comparisons (is greater than, is
smaller than, etc.) and logical operations (NOT, OR,
AND, etc)

• The new breed of popular microprocessors have not

one but two almost identical ALU’s that can do
calculations simultaneously, doubling the capability

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 Floating-Point Unit (FPU)
• Also known as the “Numeric Unit”

• It performs calculations that involve numbers

represented in the scientific notation (also known as
floating-point numbers).
• This notation can represent extremely small and
extremely large numbers in a compact form
• Floating-point calculations are required for doing
graphics, engineering and scientific work
• The ALU can do these calculations as well, but will do
them very slowly

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 Registers
• Both ALU & FPU have a very small amount of super-
fast private memory placed right next to them for their
exclusive use. These are called registers

• The ALU & FPU store intermediate and final results

from their calculations in these registers

• Processed data goes back to the data cache and then

to main memory from these registers

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 Control Unit
• The brain of the microprocessor

• Manages the whole microprocessor

• Tasks include fetching instructions & data,

storing data, managing input/output devices

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The 1 microprocessor : Intel 4004
st

• Introduced 1971
• 2250 transistors
• 108 kHz, 60,000 ops/sec
• 16 pins
• 10-micron process
• As powerful as the ENIAC which had 18000 tubes
and occupied a large room
• Targeted use: Calculators
• Cost: less than $100
Why Intel came up with the idea

?
 Why Intel came up with the idea?
• A Japanese calculator manufacturer – Busicom – wanted Intel
to develop 16 separate IC’s for a line of new calculators
• Intel, at that point in time known only as a memory
manufacturer, was quite small and did not have the resources
to do all 16 chips
• Ted Hoff came up with the idea of doing all 16 on a single chip

• Later, Intel realized that the 4004 could have other uses as well

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 Moore’s Law
• In 1965, one of the founders of Intel – Gordon
Moore – predicted that the number of
transistor on an IC (and therefore the
capability of microprocessors) will double
every year. Later he modified it to 18-months

• His prediction still holds true in ‘02. In fact, the

time required for doubling is contracting to the
original prediction, and is closer to a year now
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 Enhancing the capability of a
microprocessor ?
The computing capability of a microprocessor can be
enhanced in many different ways:
– By increasing the clock frequency

– By increasing the word-width

– By having a more effective caching algorithm and the right cache

size
– By adding more functional units (e.g. ALU’s, FPU’s, Vector/SIMD
units, etc.)

– Improving the architecture

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 Storage Unit

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 Two Types of Storage

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 Memory/Storage
• RAM
• Punch cards
• ROM
• Hard disk
• Floppy disk
• Tape
• CD
• DVD

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 Classifying Memory/Storage
• Electronic (RAM, ROM)
magnetic (HD, FD, Tape), optical (CD, DVD)

• Volatile (RAM), non-volatile (HD)

• Direct access (RAM, HD), serial access (Tape)

• Read/write (HD, RAM), read-only (CD)

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 Primary Memory
Radom Access Memory(RAM)

Read Only Memory(ROM)

 Classification of Commonly used Secondary
Storage Devices

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 Output Devices
• Output is processed data or information, and
typically takes the form of text, graphics, photos,
audio, and/or video.
• Output devices are any hardware used to
provide or to create output.
• They translate information that has been
processed by the system unit into a form that
humans can understand.
• Some commonly used output devices are:
 Output Devices
Printer

Plotter

Speakers

Monitor

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 What have we learnt today?
The five essential components of any computer are
input devices, processor, memory, storage and output
devices
Today we also learnt about the microprocessor, its
function the key component, the brain, of a computer
And its various sub-systems
– Bus interface unit
– Data & instruction cache memory
– Instruction decoder
– ALU
– Floating-point unit
– Control unit

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