Unit-III - Theory On The Metal Cutting Operation

18MEC103T - MANUFACTURING
TECHNOLOGY
Unit III - Theory on the metal

cutting operation
1
MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES
• The MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES are a
family of SHAPING OPERATIONS in which excess
material is removed from a starting workpart so
that what remains is the desired final geometry.
• The most important branch of the family is
conventional machining , in which a sharp
cutting tool is used to mechanically cut the
material to achieve the desired geometry.
2
• The three principal machining processes are
turning, drilling, and milling.
TURNING DRILLING MILLING
3
• Machining is important commercially and
technologically for several reasons:
– Variety of work materials .
– Variety of part shapes and geometric features .
– Dimensional accuracy.
– Good surface finishes .
4
• On the other hand, certain disadvantages are
associated with machining and other material
removal processes:
– Wasteful of material
– Time consuming
5
• Machining is generally performed after other
manufacturing processes such as casting or bulk
deformation (e.g., forging, bar drawing).
• The other processes create the general shape of
the starting workpart, and machining provides
the final geometry, dimensions, and finish.
6
Metal Cutting
 What is unique in this process?
7
Mechanics of Metal Cutting
 A cutting tool exerts compressive force on the workpiece which stresses
the work material beyond the yield point and therefore metal deform
plastically and shears off.
8
Mechanics of Metal Cutting
 Plastic flow takes place in a localized region called the shear plane.
 Sheared material begins to flow along the cutting tool face in the form of
chips.
 Applied compressive force is cutting force
9
Metal Cutting
 What is required for machining?
 Depth of cut  pre-set interference between tool and work piece
 Feed  motion to bring in additional material for machining
 Speed  what generates the basic wedge and cuts
10
Metal Cutting
 Turning
11
Metal Cutting
 Drilling
12
Metal Cutting
 Milling
13
Metal Cutting
 Machining requirements
The blank and the cutting tool are properly mounted (in fixtures) and moved in a powerful device
called machine tool enabling gradual removal of layer of material from the work surface resulting
in its desired dimensions and surface finish. Additionally some environment called cutting fluid is
generally used to ease machining by cooling and lubrication.
14
Machine Tools
 Machine tool  It is a power operated device or system of devices in
which energy is expended to produce jobs of desired size, shape and
surface finish by removing excess material from the preformed blanks in
the form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved past the work
surface's.
15
Machine Tools
 Physical function of a machine tool
 Firmly holding the blank and the tool
 Transmit motions to the tool and the blank
 Provide power to the tool-work pair for the machining action
 Control of the machining parameters (speed, feed and depth of cut).
16
Theory of Metal Cutting
 Metal cutting is the process of producing a work piece by removing
unwanted material from a block of metal, in the form of chips.
17
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting (Cutting Edge)
 Orthogonal cutting  the cutting edge of the tool is straight and
perpendicular to the direction of motion.
 Oblique cutting  The cutting edge of the tools is set at an angle to the
direction of motion.
18
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting (Chip flow)
 Orthogonal cutting  The direction of the chip flow velocity is normal to
the cutting edge of the tool
 Oblique cutting  The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle
with the normal to the cutting edge of the tool. The angle is called as chip
flow angle.
19
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting (dimension)
 Orthogonal cutting  Cutting force and thrust force are acting. It can be
considered as two dimensional cutting.
 Oblique cutting  Cutting force, radial force and thrust force or feed
force are acting. So the metal cutting may be considered as a three
dimensional cutting.
20
Fc  Cutting Force; Ft  Thrust Force
21
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting (heat flow)
 Orthogonal cutting  During metal cutting process, the heat developed
due to friction per unit area is more.
 Oblique cutting  The heat developed due to friction per unit area is
less.
22
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting (tool life)
 Orthogonal cutting  Smaller tool life when compared to Oblique cutting
for same cutting condition.
 Oblique cutting  Tool have longer life compared to orthogonal cutting.
23
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting (shear force)
 Orthogonal cutting  Shear force act on a small area.
 Oblique cutting  Shear force act on a larger area.
24
CUTTING TOOL
• A CUTTING TOOL has one or more sharp cutting
edges and is made of a material that is harder
than the work material.
• The cutting edge serves to separate a chip from
the parent work material.
25
Cutting tools classification
 Cutting Tools classification
 Single point cutting edge tool
 Multiple point cutting edge tool
26
Single point cutting edge tool
 Single point cutting edge tool
 One dominant cutting edge
 Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
 Turning uses single point tools
27
 These tools may be left-handed or right-handed
Example: Right handed / Left handed
28
 These tools may be left-handed or right-handed
 It depends on the cutting edge position
29
 Solid type and the tipped tool
30
Multiple point cutting edge tool
 Multiple point cutting edge tool
 More than one cutting edge
 Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge tools
31
32
SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL
• A SINGLE-POINT tool has one cutting edge and is
used for operations such as turning.
• In addition to the tool features shown in Figure,
there is one tool point from which the name of
this cutting tool is derived .
• During machining, the point of the tool
penetrates below the original work surface of the
part.
• The point is usually rounded to a certain radius,
called the nose radius. 33
SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL 3-D VIEW
SF SIDE FLANK
SHANK
EF END FLANK
RAKE FACE
SF
EF
Nose / Corner / Tip

34
MULTI-POINT CUTTING TOOL
Direction of
Rotation
Cutting Edges
35
TOOL SIGNATURE
• Convenient way to specify tool angles by use of
a standardized abbreviated system is known as
tool signature or tool nomenclature.
• It indicates the angles that a tool utilizes during
the cut.
• The seven elements that comprise the signature
of a single point cutting tool can be stated in the
following order:
36
TOOL SIGNATURE
Tool signature 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8

1. Back rake angle (0°)
2. Side rake angle (7°)
3. End relief angle (6°)
4. Side relief angle (8°)
5. End cutting edge angle (15°)
6. Side cutting edge angle (16°)
7. Nose radius (0.8 mm)
37
SHANK
38
SHANK
RAKE FACE
Side Flank
End Flank
39
SHANK
RAKE FACE
Side Cutting
Side Flank Edge
40
SHANK
RAKE FACE
End Cutting
Edge
End Flank 41
SF SIDE FLANK
SHANK
EF END FLANK
RAKE FACE
SF
EF
Nose / Corner / Tip

42
43
SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL PHOTOGRAPH
RAKE FACE
End Cutting
Edge
End Flank Side Cutting

Side Flank Edge 44
RAKE FACE
• Rake face is the surface over which the chip ,
formed in the cutting process, slides.
SHANK
RAKE FACE
EF SF
45
FLANK FACE
• Flank face is the surface(s) over which the
surface, produced on the workpiece, passes.
SHANK
RAKE FACE
EF SF
FLANK
46
CUTTING EDGE
• Cutting edge is a theoretical line of intersection
of the rake and the flank surfaces.
SHANK
RAKE FACE
EF SF
FLANK
47
CUTTING WEDGE
• Cutting wedge is the tool body enclosed
between the rake and the flank faces.
SHANK
RAKE FACE
EF SF
FLANK
48
WEDGE ANGLE
• Wedge angle is defined as the angle between
flank and rake face.
SHANK
RAKE FACE
FLANK
EF
End Wedge
Angle 49
WEDGE ANGLE
• Wedge angle is defined as the angle between
flank and rake face.
SHANK
RAKE FACE
Side Wedge
Angle SF
FLANK
50
SHANK
• Shank is the part of the tool by which it is held.
SHANK
RAKE FACE
EF SF
FLANK
51
CUTTING TOOL ANGLES
End Cutting Edge Angle (µe)

RAKE FACE
SHANK
SHANK
Side Cutting Edge Angle (µs)
RAKE FACE
EF SF
FLANK
52
SIDE CUTTING EDGE ANGLE(µs)
• Side cutting angles may vary from 10° to 20°,
depending on the material cut.
• If this angle is too large (over 30°), the tool will
tend to chatter.
53
END CUTTING EDGE ANGLE (µe)
• This angle may vary from 5° to 30°, depending
on the type of cut and finish desired.
54
CUTTING TOOL ANGLES
Nose
Angle SHANK
SHANK
RAKE FACE
EF SF
FLANK
55
CUTTING TOOL ANGLES
Nose Radius
SHANK
SHANK
RAKE FACE
EF SF
FLANK
56
NOSE RADIUS
• The nose is the part of the tool bit which is
shaped to a point and forms the corner between
the side cutting edge and the end cutting edge.
• The nose radius is the rounded end of the tool
bit.
57
CUTTING TOOL ANGLES
Back Rake Angle (αb)
SHANK
SF
RAKE FACE
End Relief /Clearance
Angle EF SF
FLANK
(βe) 58
END RELIEF (CLEARANCE) ANGLE(βe)
• The end relief (clearance) angle is the angle ground
below the nose of the toolbit, which permits the cutting
tool to be fed into the work.
• It is generally 10° to 15° for general-purpose tools .
59
END WEDGE ANGLE (γe)
• End wedge angle is defined as the angle between
end flank and rake face.
End Wedge
Angle
SHANK
RAKE FACE
FLANK
EF
End Wedge
Angle
60
BACK (TOP) RAKE ANGLE (αb)
• The back (top) rake angle is the backward slope
of the tool face away from the nose.
• The back rake angle is generally about 20° and is
provided for in the tool holder .
• Back rake permits the chips to flow away from
the point of the cutting tool.
• Two types of back or top rake angles are
provided on cutting tools and are always found
on the top of the toolbit:
61
POSITIVE RAKE
• Positive rake, where the point of the cutting tool
and the cutting edge contact metal first and the
chip moves down the face of the toolbit.
Positive Rake Angle
FLANK
62
POSITIVE RAKE
• Generally, positive rake angles:
– Make the tool more sharp and pointed. This reduces
the strength of the tool, as the small angle in the tip
may cause it to chip away.
– Reduce cutting forces and power requirements.
– Helps in the formation of continuous chips in ductile
materials.
– Can help avoid the formation of a built-up edge.
– Are suitable for lower cutting speeds.
– Are suitable for ductile materials.
63
POSITIVE RAKE
• High-speed steel-cutting tools are almost always
ground with positive rake angles.
• HSS has good strength and toughness, so that
the thinner cross section of the tool created by
high positive rake angles does not usually cause a
problem with tool breakage.
64
POSITIVE RAKE
NOTE
Because there is less strength at the point of
positive rake angle tools than with negative-rake
tools, tool failure is more likely with large
positive rake angles at high cutting speeds or
with intermittent cuts.
65
NEGATIVE RAKE
• Negative rake, where the face of the cutting tool
contacts the metal first and the chip is forced up
the face of the toolbit.
Negative Rake Angle
FLANK
66
NEGATIVE RAKE
• Negative rake angles are generally preferred for
ceramic, diamond, and cubic boron nitride
tools (Brittle in nature).
• As a group, these materials have higher
hardness and lower toughness.
• In other sense these materials are strong in
compression but are relatively weak in
tension because of their brittle nature.
67
NEGATIVE RAKE
• Cemented carbides, for example, are used with
rake angles in the range from -5° to +10°.
• Ceramics have rake angles between -5° to -15 °.
68
NEGATIVE RAKE
• Negative rake angles also provide greater
strength at the cutting edge and better heat
conductivity.
• The surface finish is usually poorer with
negative rakes, although they can have
good finish at higher speeds.
69
NEGATIVE RAKE
• Generally, negative rake angles :
– Make the tool more blunt,
– increasing the strength of the cutting edge
– Causes high compression
– Increase the cutting forces.
– Can increase friction, resulting in higher
temperatures.
– Are suitable for higher cutting speeds.
– Are suitable for hard brittle materials.
70
NEGATIVE RAKE
NOTE
• Negative-rake tools are most likely to produce a
built-up edge with a rough continuous chip and a
rough finish on the work, especially at lower
cutting speeds and with soft ductile materials.
• Better finishes with negative rake can be
obtained at high speeds with hard brittle
materials.
71
72
73
74
CUTTING TOOL ANGLES
Side Wedge Angle (γ )

s
Side Rake Angle
(αs)
SHANK
EF
RAKE FACE
Side Relief /Clearance EF SF

FLANK
Angle (β )
s 75
SIDE RELIEF (CLEARANCE) ANGLE (βs)
• The side relief (clearance) angle is the angle
ground on the flank of the tool below the cutting
edge .
• This angle is generally 6° to 10°.
76
SIDE WEDGE ANGLE (γS)
• Side wedge angle is defined as the angle between
side flank and rake face.
Side Wedge Angle
SHANK
RAKE FACE
Side Wedge SF
FLANK
Angle
77
SIDE RAKE ANGLE (αs)
• The side rake angle is the angle at which the face
is ground away from the cutting edge.
• For general-purpose toolbits, the side rake is
generally 14°.
78
SIDE RAKE ANGLE (αs)
Positive Side Rake Angle Negative Side Rake Angle
79
Tool signature for single point cutting tool
 Shank
 It is the main body of the tool
 Flank
 The surface of the tool adjacent to the cutting edge
 Face
 The surface on which the chip slides
 Nose
 It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect
80
 Nose radius
 Strengthens finishing point of tool
 Cutting edge
 It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from
the work piece
81
 Side cutting edge angle

 Angle between side cutting edge and the side of the tool shank
 End cutting edge angle
 Angle between end cutting edge and the line normal to the tool shank
82
 Side relief angle
 Angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured
at right angle to the side flank
83
 End relief angle

 Angle between the portion of the end flank immediately
below the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the
base of the tool, measured at right angle to the end flank
84
 Side rake angle

 Angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of
the tool and measured in a plane perpendicular to the base
and the side cutting edge
 Back rake angle

 Angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of
the tool and measured in a plane perpendicular to the side
cutting edge
85
86
• MULTIPLE-CUTTING-EDGE TOOLS have more
than one cutting edge and usually achieve their
motion relative to the workpart by rotating.
• Drilling and milling use rotating multiple-cutting-
edge tools.
• Figure shows a helical milling cutter used in
peripheral milling.
• Although the shape is quite different from a
single point tool, many elements of tool
geometry are similar. 87
Direction of
Rotation
Cutting Edges
88
89
90
91
MCQ for tool signature
• Rack Angle can be
– 1) Positive
– 2) Negative
– 3) neutral
– 4) All the above
• Name the type of Rack face is Figure

– 1) Positive
– 2) Negative
– 3) neutral
– 4) Shallow
92
MCQ for Orthogonal and oblique cutting
• Orthogonal cutting is ___ dimensional metal

cutting.
• (A) one
• (B) two
• (C) three
• (D) none of the above
93
Tool Materials
94
CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
1. High Carbon Steel

2. High Speed Steel (HSS)
3. Cast Alloys
4. Cemented carbides (cermet) (sintered carbide)
5. Coated Carbides
6. Ceramics
7. Diamonds
Cutting Tool Materials
 Properties
 Red hardness or hot hardness  It is the ability of a material
to retain its hardness at high temperature
 Wear resistance  It enables the cutting tool to retain its
shape and cutting efficiency
 Toughness  It relates to the ability of a material to resist
shock or impact loads associated with interrupted cuts.
 High thermal shock resistance
 Low adhesion to work piece material
 Low diffusivity to work piece material
96
TOOL MATERIALS (Cont)
High Carbon Steel
This material is one of the earliest cutting materials used in machining. It is
however now virtually superseded by other materials used in engineering
because it starts to temper at about 220C . This softening process continues
as the temperature rises. As a result cutting using this material for tools is
limited to speeds up to 0.15 m/s for machining mild steel with lots of coolant.
High Speed Steel (HSS)
This range of metals contain about 7% carbon, 4% chromium plus additions
of tungsten, vanadium, molybdenum and cobalt. These metals maintain their
hardness at temperature up to about 600o, but soften rapidly at higher
temperatures. These materials are suitable for cutting mild steel at speeds
up maximum rates of 0.8 m/s to 1.8 m/s.
97
Cast Alloys
These cutting tools are made of various nonferous metals in a cobalt base. They can
withstand cutting temperatures of up to 760°C and are capable of cutting speeds
about 60% higher than HSS.
Cemented carbides (cermet) (sintered carbide)
This material usually consists of tungsten carbide or a mixture of tungsten carbide,
titanium, or tantalum carbide in powder form, sintered in a matrix of cobalt or nickel.
As this material is expensive and has low rupture strength it is normally made in the
form of tips which are brazed or clamped on a steel shank. The clamped tips are
generally used as throw away inserts.
Coated Carbides
The cutting system is based on providing a thin layer of high wear-resistant titanium
carbide fused to a conventional tough grade carbide insert, thus achieving a tool
combining the wear resistance of one material with the wear resistance of another.
These systems provide a longer wear resistance and a higher cutting speed compared
98
to conventional carbides.
• Ceramics
Ceramics are made by powder metallurgy from aluminium oxide with additions
of titanium oxide and magnesium oxide to improve cutting properties. These
have a very high hot resistance and wear resistance and can cut at very high
speed. However they are brittle and have little resistance to to shock. Their use
is therefore limited to tips used for continuous high speed cutting on vibration-
free machines.
• Diamonds
Diamonds have limited application due to the high cost and the small size of the
of the stones. They are used on very hard materials to produce a fine finish and
on soft materials. especially those inclined to clog other cutting materials. They
are generally used at very high cutting speed with low feed and light cuts. Due
to the brittleness of the diamonds the machine has to be designed to be
vibration free. The tools last for 10 (up to 400) times longer than carbide based
tools.
99
Machinability
 Machinability is a system property that indicates how easy a
material can be machined at low cost.
 Good machinability  cutting with minimum energy, minimum
tool wear, good surface finish.
100
Machinability
 Quantitative measures of machinability
 Machinability index
 Tool life
 Surface finish
101
Machinability
 Good machinable materials should have
 Low ductility
 Low shear strength
 Low hardness
 High thermal conductivity
 Weak metallurgical bond (adhesion)
102
Machinability
 Machinable materials
 Ferrous materials
 Carbon steels : annealed, heat-treated, cold worked
 Alloy steels: hard
 Stainless steels
 Cast iron
 Non-ferrous materials
 Zinc, magnesium, aluminium alloys, beryllium, titanium

103
Chip formation
104
THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION
• The cutting tool removes the metal from the
workpiece in the form of “chips”.
• As the tool advances into the workpiece, the

metal in front of the tool is compressed and
when the compression limit of the metal has
been exceeded, it is separated from the
workpiece and flows plastically in the form of
chip.
Shear plane
Shear angle
Ø
• The plastic flow of the metal takes place in a
localised region called shear plane, which
extends from the cutting edge obliquely upto the
uncut surface in front of the tool.
Or in other words
• The chip is formed by shear deformation
(primary shear) along a plane called the shear
plane, which is oriented at an angle Ø with the
surface of the work.
• Another shearing action occurs in the chip after
it has been formed.
• This additional shear is referred to as secondary

shear to distinguish it from primary shear.
• Secondary shear results from friction between

the chip and the tool as the chip slides along the
rake face of the tool.
• During cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is
positioned a certain distance below the original
work surface.
• This corresponds to the thickness of the chip

before the chip formation = to.
• As the chip is formed along the shear plane, its

thickness increases to = tc.
to < tc tc
Tool
Chip
to
Work
• The ratio of to to tc is called the chip thickness
ratio (or simply the chip ratio) r.
to
r =
tc
• Since the chip thickness after cutting is always
greater than the corresponding thickness before
cutting, the chip ratio will always be less than 1.
TYPES OF CHIPS
• Chip is a small piece of material removed in the
course of chopping, cutting, or breaking
something, esp. a hard material such as wood ,
stone or metal.
• In a metal cutting operation chips are separated

from the workpiece to impart the required size
and shape to the workpiece.
TYPES OF CHIPS
• The chips that are formed during metal cutting
operations can be classified into three types:
1. Discontinuous or segmental chips
2. Continuous chips
3. Continuous chips with built-up edge.

1. DISCONTINOUS CHIP
• Brittle work materials
• Low cutting speeds
• Large feed and depth of
cut
• High tool‑chip friction
• Low or Negative rake
angle
• When brittle materials like cast iron are cut, the
deformed material gets fractured very easily and
thus the chip produced is in the form of
discontinuous segments.
• In this type the deformed material instead of

flowing continuously gets ruptured periodically.
• Also they generally provide better surface finish
(for brittle material only).
• Discontinuous chips are easier from the chip

disposal view point.
• However, in case of ductile materials they cause

poor surface finish and low tool life.
• A discontinuous chip comes off as small chunks
or particles. When we get this chip it may
indicate:
– brittle work material
– small or negative rake angles
– large feed, depth of cut and low cutting speed
2. CONTINUOUS CHIP
• Ductile work materials
• High cutting speeds
• Small feeds and depths of
cut
• Sharp cutting edge
• Low tool‑chip friction
• High or Positive rake
angle
2. CONTINUOUS CHIP
• Continuous chips are normally produced when
machining steel or ductile metals at high cutting
speeds.
• The continuous chip which is like a ribbon flows
along the rake face.
• Continuous chip is possible because of the
ductility of metal.
2. CONTINUOUS CHIP
2. CONTINUOUS CHIP
• It can be assumed that each layer of metal flows
along the slip plane till it is stopped by work
hardening.
• Each of these layers get welded to the previous

ones because of the high temperature, thus
forming a continuous chip.
2. CONTINUOUS CHIP
• Some ideal conditions that promote continuous
chips in metal cutting are:
– sharp cutting edge,
– small chip thickness (fine feed),
– large rake angle,
– high cutting speed,
– ductile work materials and
– less friction between chip tool interface through
efficient lubrication.
2. CONTINUOUS CHIP
• This is the most desirable form of chip since the
surface finish obtained is good and cutting is
smooth.
• It also helps in having higher tool life and lower

power consumption.
• However, long continuous chips (as in turning)

can cause problems with regard to chip
disposal.
2. CONTINUOUS CHIP
• These chips also cause a hazard to
– the machine operator and
– the workpart finish,
– and they interfere with automatic operation of the
turning process.
2. CONTINUOUS CHIP
• Therefore it is essentially needed to break such
continuous chips into small regular pieces for
– safety of the working people
– prevention of damage of the product
– easy collection and disposal of chips.
2. CONTINUOUS CHIP
( Chip Breakers)
• To help in this direction various forms of chip
breakers are frequently used with single-point
tools
– to force the chips to curl more tightly than they
would naturally do, thus causing them to be broken
into small pieces so that they can be easily disposed
off.
• They work on the principle that “If you decrease
the radius of chip enough you can break the
chip.”
Chip Curl
• A single point
cutting tool
(without a chip
breaker) showing
a long chip curl
Groove-type :
CHIP BREAKER
• Groove-type chip
breaker designed
into the
cutting tool itself.
Integrated Obstruction Type :
CHIP BREAKER
• Integrated
Obstruction-type
chip breakers are in
the form of step
made as an integral
part on the rake face
of the tool.
Clamped On Obstruction Type :
CHIP BREAKER
• Clamped On
Obstruction-type
chip breaker
designed as an
additional device on
the rake face of the
tool.
3. CONTINUOUS CHIP WITH
BUILT-UP EDGE
• Ductile materials
• Low‑to‑medium cutting
speeds
• Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to adhere
to rake face
• BUE forms, then breaks off,
cyclically
BUILT-UP EDGE
• When machining ductile materials at low-to-
medium cutting speeds, friction between tool
and chip tends to cause portions of the work
material to adhere to the rake face of the tool
near the cutting edge.
• This formation is called a built-up edge (BUE).
• The formation of a BUE is cyclical; it forms and
grows, then becomes unstable and breaks off.
BUILT-UP EDGE
• Much of the detached BUE is carried away with
the chip, sometimes taking portions of the tool
rake face with it, which reduces the life of the
cutting tool.
• Portions of the detached BUE that are not
carried off with the chip become imbedded in
the newly created work surface, causing the
surface to become rough.
3. PREVENTION OF BUILT-UP EDGE CHIP
FORMATION
• The formation of a built-up edge is also referred
to as chip welding.
• Since chip welding has a considerable and
adverse effect on tool life, power consumption,
and surface finish, every attempt must be made
to prevent it occurring.
FORMATION
• This is largely achieved by reversing the
conditions that cause chip welding in the first
place.
• Prevention is mainly done by
– Reduction of friction
– Reducing the pressure
– Preventing metal to metal contact
– Reducing the temperature
FORMATION
• Reduction of friction
– This can be achieved by increasing the rake angle,
using a cutting fluid that is an extreme pressure
lubricant as well as a coolant, and polishing the rake
face.
• Reducing the pressure
– This can be achieved by increasing the rake angle.
Remember this also weakens the tool and there is a
limit to how far the rake angle can be increased for
any given workpiece material.
– Reducing the rate of feed will also help.
FORMATION
• Preventing metal to metal contact
– This can be achieved by the use of a lubricant
containing an extreme pressure additive. Such
additives are usually sulphur or chlorine compounds.
These additives tend to build up a non-metallic film
on the surfaces of the tool and the chip. Since metal
is not then in contact with metal chip welding cannot
take place.
FORMATION
• Reducing the temperature
– This can also be achieved by any of the above
solutions. The temperature can also be achieved by
reducing the spindle speed but this reduces the rate
of metal removal.
MCQ on chip formation
Chip breaker is used to
• Increase tool life
• Remove chip from bed
• break the chips in short segment
• a coolant forced under pressure on the chip
139
TOOL FAILURE & TOOL LIFE
140
TOOL FAILURE
FRACTURE TEMPERATURE GRADUAL
141
TOOL FAILURE
1. FRACTURE FAILURE : This mode of failure occurs
when the cutting force at the tool point
becomes excessive, causing it to fail suddenly
by brittle fracture.
2. TEMPERATURE FAILURE : This failure occurs
when the cutting temperature is too high for the
tool material, causing the material at the tool
point to soften, which leads to plastic
deformation and loss of the sharp edge.
142
TOOL FAILURE
3. GRADUAL WEAR : Gradual wearing of the
cutting edge causes loss of tool shape,
reduction in cutting efficiency, an acceleration
of wearing as the tool becomes heavily worn,
and finally tool failure in a manner similar to a
temperature failure.
143
TOOL FAILURE
• Fracture and temperature failures result in
premature loss of the cutting tool.
• These two modes of failure are therefore
undesirable.
• Of the three possible tool failures, gradual wear
is preferred because it leads to the longest
possible use of the tool, with the associated
economic advantage of that longer use.
144
TOOL WEAR
• Gradual wear occurs at two principal locations on
a cutting tool: the top rake face and the flank.
• Accordingly, two main types of tool wear can be
distinguished:
1. Crater Wear
2. Flank Wear
145
1. CRATER WEAR
RAKE FACE
146
SHANK
CRATER WEAR
RAKE FACE
SIDE FLANK
END
FLANK
147
1. CRATER WEAR
• Crater Wear consists of a cavity in the rake face
of the tool that forms and grows from the action
of the chip sliding against the surface.
• High stresses and temperatures characterize the
tool–chip contact interface, contributing to the
wearing action.
• The crater can be measured either by its depth
or its area.
148
2. FLANK WEAR
• Flank Wear occurs on the flank, or relief face, of
the tool.
• It results from rubbing between the newly
generated work surface and the flank face
adjacent to the cutting edge.
• Flank wear is measured by the width of the wear
band.
• This wear band is sometimes called the flank
wear land.
149
SHANK
FLANK WEAR
RAKE FACE
SIDE FLANK
END
FLANK
150
2. FLANK WEAR
SIDE FLANK
151
MECHANISM OF TOOL WEAR
• The mechanisms that cause wear at the tool–
chip and tool–work interfaces in machining can
be summarized as follows:-
1. ABRASION.
2. ADHESION.
3. DIFFUSION.
152
1. ABRASION. This is a mechanical wearing action
caused by hard particles in the work material
gouging and removing small portions of the
tool.
This abrasive action occurs in both flank wear
and crater wear
153
2. ADHESION. When two metals are forced into
contact under high pressure and temperature,
adhesion or welding occur between them.
These conditions are present between the chip
and the rake face of the tool.
As the chip flows across the tool, small particles
of the tool are broken a way from the surface,
resulting in attrition of the surface.
154
3. DIFFUSION. This is a process in which an exchange
of atoms takes place across a close contact
boundary between two materials.
In the case of tool wear, diffusion occurs at the
tool–chip boundary, causing the tool surface to
become depleted of the atoms responsible for its
hardness.
As this process continues, the tool surface becomes
more susceptible to abrasion and adhesion.
Diffusion is believed to be a principal mechanism of
crater wear. 155
TOOL LIFE (T)
• TOOL LIFE is defined as the length of cutting
time that the tool can be used.
• Tool life T is the period of time, expressed in
minutes, for which the cutting edge, affected by
the cutting procedure, retains its cutting
capacity between sharpening operations.
• The cutting edge remains functional until a
certain amount of wear has occurred.
156
Factors affect TOOL LIFE (T)
• work material and cutting conditions.
• Harder work materials cause the wear rate to
increase.
• Increased speed, feed, and depth of cut
• If the tool wear curves are plotted for several
different cutting speeds, the results appear as in
figure.
• As cutting speed is increased, wear rate increases
so the same level of wear is reached in less time.
157
TOOL WEAR Vs. CUTTING TIME
v=160 v=130 v=100

Tool Flank Wear (mm)
0.50
T=0 T=5 T=12 T=41 CUTTING TIME (min)

158
(Log-Log Plot) CUTTING SPEED Vs. TOOL LIFE
Log of Cutting Speed
v=160
(m/min)
v=130
T=5
T=12
v=100
T=41
Tool Life (min)
T=1 T=5 T=10 T=50 T=100

159
Log of tool life (min)
TAYLOR TOOL LIFE EQUATION
• The discovery of this relationship around 1900 is
credited to F. W. Taylor.
• It can be expressed in equation form and is
called the Taylor tool life equation:
n
vT = C
160
• v = cutting speed , m/min
• T = tool life, min
• n and C are parameters whose values depend on
feed, depth of cut, work material, tooling
(material in particular), and the tool life criterion
used.
161
• Basically, Taylor tool life equation states that
higher cutting speeds result in shorter tool lives.
• Relating the parameters n and C to the previous
figure, n is the slope of the plot (expressed in
linear terms rather than in the scale of the axes),
and C is the intercept on the speed axis.
• C represents the cutting speed that results in a
1min tool life.
162
Tool Life Expectancy Equation
𝑛 𝑥 𝑦
𝑉 𝑐𝑇 𝐷 𝐹 =𝐶
V – Cutting speed
T – Tool life
C – Machining Constant
Taylor’s Equation
163
1.While machining carbon steel by a tungsten based steel
tool, tool life of 50 minutes was observed when machined
with a cutting speed of 100 m/min. Determine(a) General
Taylor’s tool life equation and (b) tool life for a cutting
speed of 80 m/min. Assume n = 0.09.
164
1.While machining carbon steel by a tungsten based steel tool, tool life of 50 minutes was
observed when machined with a cutting speed of 100 m/min. Determine(a) General Taylor’s
tool life equation and (b) tool life for a cutting speed of 80 m/min. Assume n = 0.09.
165
2. A carbide-cutting tool when machined with mild steel
workpiece material at a cutting speed of 50m/min lasted
for 100 minutes. Determine the life of the tool when the
cutting speed is increased by 25%. At what speed the tool
is to be used to get a tool life of 180 minute. Assume n =
0.26 in the Taylor’s expression.
166
2. A carbide-cutting tool when machined with mild steel workpiece material at a cutting speed of
50m/min lasted for 100 minutes. Determine the life of the tool when the cutting speed is increased
by 25%. At what speed the tool is to be used to get a tool life of 180 minute. Assume n = 0.26 in the
Taylor’s expression.
167
3. The following data were recorded while turning a
workpiece on a lathe: Cutting speed = 25 m/min, feed
rate = 0.3 mm/rev., depth of cut = 2.0 mm, tool life = 100
minutes. The following tool life equation is given for this
operation:
VT 0.12 .f 0.7 .d 0.3 = C
If the cutting speed, feed and depth of cut are all
increased by 25% each and also collectively, what will be
their effect on the tool life.
168
3. The following data were recorded while turning a workpiece on a
lathe: Cutting speed = 25 m/min, feed rate = 0.3 mm/rev., depth of
cut = 2.0 mm, tool life = 100 minutes. The following tool life
equation is given for this operation:
VT 0.12 .f 0.7 .d 0.3 = C
If the cutting speed, feed and depth of cut are all increased
by 25% each and also collectively, what will be their effect on the
tool life.
• Solution
• C = 23
• For V = 31.25 m/min, T = 15.27min
• For f= 0.375 mm/ rev, T = 27.13 min
• For d = 2.5 mm, T = 56.29 min
• For cumulative effect, T = 2.42 min
169
TOOL LIFE NUMERICAL 1
• A cutting tool cutting at 25m/min gave a life of
1hour between regrinding when operating on
roughening cuts with mild steel. What will be its
probable life when engaged on light finish cuts?
Take n= 1/8 for rough cuts and 1/10 for finishing
cuts.
170
n
vT = C
For rough cuts

v = 25m/min , T = 60 min, n= 1/8
For finish cuts

v = 25m/min , T = ???, n= 1/10
Ans:-168min
171
1/8
• If the relationship for HSS tool is v T = C1, and
1/5
for Tungsten carbide tool is v T = C2, and
assuming that at a speed of 25m/min the tool
life was 3hrs in each case, compare their cutting
lives at 32m/min.
Ans. Ans.
HSS= 24.98 mins Tungsten= 52.39 mins
172
• A carbide tool with mild steel workpiece was
found to give life of 2hrs while cutting at 50
m/min. Compute the tool life if the same tool is
used at a speed of 25% higher than previous
one. Also determine the value of cutting speed if
the tool is required to have tool life of 3hrs.
Assume Taylors exponent “n”=0.27.
Ans. Ans.
T= 52.51 mins v= 44.81 m/mins 173
MCQ on tool Wear
Crater wear is mainly due to the phenomenon is known
as
a) adhesion of metals
b) oxidation of metals
c) diffusion of metals
d) none of the mentioned
Flank wear occurs mainly on the
a) front relief face and side relief face
b) Rake face
c) cutting edge only
d) Nose only
174
Cutting fluids
175
CUTT
ING
FLUID
S
176
CUTTING FLUIDS
• Cutting fluid is a type of coolant and lubricant
designed specifically for metalworking and
machining processes.
• The cutting fluid acts primarily as a coolant and
secondly as a lubricant, reducing the friction effects
at the tool–chip interface and the work flank
regions.
• The cutting fluids also carry away the chips and
provide friction (and force) reductions in regions
where the bodies of the tools rub against the
workpiece. 177
CUTTING FLUIDS
• Thus in processes such as drilling, sawing,
tapping, and reaming, portions of the tool apart
from the cutting edges come in contact with the
work, and these (sliding friction) contacts greatly
increase the power needed to perform the
process, unless properly lubricated.
178
CUTTING FLUIDS
• Cutting fluid may be a coolant, a lubricant or a
mixture of both.
• Water is an excellent coolant (reduce high
temperature effectively) but it is not an effective
lubricant (it does not reduce friction).
• Also, water causes rusting of workpiece and
machine-tool components.
179
COOLANTS
• Coolants are cutting fluids designed to reduce
the effects of heat in the machining operation.
• They have a limited effect on the amount of heat
energy generated in cutting; instead, they carry
away the heat that is generated, thereby
reducing the temperature of tool and workpiece.
• This helps to prolong the life of the cutting tool.
180
COOLANTS
• Coolant-type cutting fluids seem to be most effective
at relatively high cutting speeds, in which heat
generation and high temperatures are problems.
• They are most effective on tool materials that are
most susceptible to temperature failures, such as
high-speed steels, and are used frequently in
turning and milling operations, in which large
amounts of heat are generated.
• Coolants are formulated with ingredients that help
reduce friction also.
181
COOLANTS
• Coolants are formulated with ingredients that
help reduce friction also.
Cutting Fluids for Turning & Milling
95% Coolant 5% Lubricant

182
Limitation of LUBRICANTS
• Lubricants are usually oil-based fluids (because
oils possess good lubricating qualities)
formulated to reduce friction at the tool–chip
and tool–work interfaces.
• Lubricant cutting fluids operate by extreme
pressure lubrication, a special form of lubrication
that involves formation of thin solid salt layers
(films) on the hot, clean metal surfaces through
chemical reaction with the lubricant.
183
Limitation of LUBRICANTS
• These extreme pressure films are significantly
more effective in reducing friction in metal
cutting than conventional lubrication, which is
based on the presence of liquid films between
the two surfaces.
• Lubricant-type cutting fluids are most effective at
lower cutting speeds.
184
LUBRICANTS
• They tend to lose their effectiveness at high
speeds (above about 120 m/min ) because the
motion of the chip at these speeds prevents the
cutting fluid from reaching the tool–chip
interface.
• In addition, high cutting temperatures at these
speeds cause the oils to vaporize before they can
lubricate.
185
LUBRICANTS
• Machining operations such as drilling and
tapping usually benefit from lubricants.
• In these operations, built-up edge formation is
retarded, and torque on the tool is reduced.
• Although the principal purpose of a lubricant is
to reduce friction, it also reduces the
temperature in the operation.
186
CUTTING FLUIDS FUNCTIONS
• Reduce friction and wear thus improving tool life.

• Cool the cutting zone, thus reducing workpiece
temperature and thermal distortion of the workpiece.
• Reduce forces and energy consumption.
• Prevents built-up edge chip formation
• To provide a good surface finish on the workpiece.
187
CUTTING FLUIDS FUNCTIONS
• Flush away chips from the cutting zone, and thus
chips from interfering with cutting process.
• Protect machined surface from environmental
corrosion.
188
Cutting Fluid Requirements
• A good cutting fluid should be
– Non-toxic
– No fire hazard
– Non-corrosive/rusting or chemical attack
– Not harmful to the lubricating system
– Cheap and easily available
189
Cutting Fluids : Method of Application
1. Manual application
2. Flooding
3. Jet application
4. Through the cutting tool
5. Mist applications
190
1. MANUAL APPLICATION
191
1. MANUAL APPLICATION
• Application of a fluid from a can manually by the
operator.
• It is not acceptable even in job-shop situations
except for tapping and some other operations
where cutting speeds are very low and friction is
a problem.
• In this case, cutting fluids are used as lubricants.
192
2. FLOODING
193
2. FLOODING
• In flooding, a steady stream of fluid is directed at
the chip or tool-workpiece interface.
• Most machine tools are equipped with a re-
circulating system that incorporates filters for
cleaning of cutting fluids.
• Flow rates range from
– 10 L/min for single-point tools to
– 225 L/min per cutter for multiple-tooth cutters, such
as milling.
194
2. FLOODING
• Fluid pressures, range from 700 to 14,000 KPa,
are used to flush away the chips.
195
3. JET
APPLIC
ATION
196
3. JET APPLICATION
• Delivering cutting fluid using specially designed
nozzles that aim a powerful jet of fluid.
• Pressures employed (range of 5.5 MPa to
35MPa) act as a chip breaker for long and
continuous chips.
• This method helps the cutting fluid to go close to
the chip tool interface or work tool interfaces by
slightly lifting or shifting the chip.
197
3. JET APPLICATION
• So this makes the cutting fluid action very
effective in the form of jet but the consumption
is high and here it is little expensive.
198
4. THROUGH THE CUTTING TOOL
Tool bit
Workpiece
Cutting fluid
Cutting fluid mixed

with chips is
collected
for reclaiming
199
4. THROUGH THE CUTTING TOOL
• For a more effective application, narrow
passages can be produced in cutting tools, as
well as in toolholders, through which cutting
fluids can be applied under high pressure.
• Some tools, especially drills for deep drilling, are
provided with axial holes through the body of the
tool so that the cutting fluid can be pumped
directly to the tool cutting edge/ cutting
section/zone.
200
5. MIST APPLICATIONS
201
• Fluid droplets suspended in air provide effective
cooling by evaporation of the fluid.
• Mist application in general is not as effective as
flooding,
• But can deliver cutting fluid to inaccessible areas
that cannot be reached by conventional flooding.
• It also provides better visibility of the workpiece
being machined.
202
• Effective with water-based fluids at air pressures
70 to 600 kPa.
• Limited cooling capacity.
• This is applicable for lubricating purpose mainly
• Requires venting to prevent inhalation of
airborne fluid particles.
• Fluid consumption is low as compared to the
other methods
203
Types of Cutting Fluids
• There are three basic types of cutting fluids used
in metal cutting:
– Water based emulsions
– Mineral oils
– Oils with additives
204
Water Based Emulsions
• Pure water is by far the best cutting fluid available
because of its highest heat carrying (high specific
heat) capacity.
• Beside this, it is very cheap and easily available. Its
low viscosity makes it to flow at high rates through
the cutting fluid system and also penetrates the
cutting zone.
• However, water corrodes the work material very
quickly, particularly at high temperatures in the
cutting zone as well as machine tool parts on which it
is spill. 205
Water Based Emulsions
• Hence other materials would be added to water
to improve its wetting characteristics, rust
inhibitors and any other additives to improve the
lubricating characteristics.
• These are also called water soluble oils.
206
Mineral Oils
• These are pure mineral oils without any
additives.
• Their main function is lubrication and rust
prevention.
• They are chemically stable.
• Their effectiveness is limited to light duty
applications only.
207
Oils With Additives
• This is by far the largest variety of cutting fluids
available.
• A number of additives have been developed which
when added to mineral oils will produce the desirable
characteristics for different machining situations.
• These lubricants generally termed as neat oils.
• These additives generally improve the load carrying
capacity.
• Fatty oils are generally used for adding the load
carrying capacity.
208
Situations where cutting fluids
can be Harmful:
• If a cutting fluid is very effective as a coolant, it
could lead to thermal shock in interrupted cutting
operations.
• Fluids may cause the chip to become more curly,
thus concentrating the heat closer to the tool tip,
which reduces tool life
• Lubricants used on the machines may get a change
in their viscosity and lubricating capabilities due to
coming in contact with cutting fluids.
209
MCQ on Cutting Fluid
Cutting fluids are used to:
a) cool the tool
b) improve surface finish
c) to help carry away the chips
d) All the above
The methods of application of cutting fluids are

a) flooding
b) jet application
c) mist application
d) all of the mentioned
210
Merchant Circle diagram
211
Forces in Machining
Fc Cutting Force
Ft Tangential Force
Ff Friction Force
N Normal Force
Fs Shear Force
Fn Normal Shear Force
Merchant’s Circle
213
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-25859-6_3
Rc Cos г To
tan Φ = Where Rc = Cutting Ratio =
1 – Rc Sin г Tc
Ff = Ft Cos г + Fc Sin г
N = Fc Cos г - Ft Sin г
Fs = Fc Cos Φ - Ft Sin Φ
Fn = Fc Sin Φ + Ft Cos Φ
Coefficient of Friction
Friction angle
µ = Ff
N ζ = tan (µ)
Shear plane angle determined by Merchant
Π 1
Φ = ζ
4 2
Where
ζ = Friction angle
r = Rake angle
MCQ on merchant circle Diagram
• Which of the following is correct about chip thickness
ratio ‘r’?
a) r<1
b) r=1
c) r>1
d) r>>>>>>1
• Horizontal force exerted by tool on work piece is
known as
a) Cutting force
b) Frictional resistance
c) Backing up force
d) Shear force 216
Thank you
217

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18MEC103T - MANUFACTURING

Unit III - Theory on the metal

TURNING DRILLING MILLING

 What is unique in this process?

 A cutting tool exerts compressive force on the workpiece which stresses

plastically and shears off.

 Applied compressive force is cutting force

 What is required for machining?

 Depth of cut  pre-set interference between tool and work piece

 Feed  motion to bring in additional material for machining

 Speed  what generates the basic wedge and cuts

 Machine tool  It is a power operated device or system of devices in

which energy is expended to produce jobs of desired size, shape and

surface finish by removing excess material from the preformed blanks in

 Physical function of a machine tool

 Firmly holding the blank and the tool

 Transmit motions to the tool and the blank

 Provide power to the tool-work pair for the machining action

 Control of the machining parameters (speed, feed and depth of cut).

 Metal cutting is the process of producing a work piece by removing

unwanted material from a block of metal, in the form of chips.

 Orthogonal cutting  the cutting edge of the tool is straight and

perpendicular to the direction of motion.

 Orthogonal cutting  The direction of the chip flow velocity is normal to

the cutting edge of the tool

 Oblique cutting  The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle

considered as two dimensional cutting.

force are acting. So the metal cutting may be considered as a three

 Orthogonal cutting  During metal cutting process, the heat developed

due to friction per unit area is more.

 Orthogonal cutting  Smaller tool life when compared to Oblique cutting

for same cutting condition.

 Oblique cutting  Tool have longer life compared to orthogonal cutting.

 Orthogonal cutting  Shear force act on a small area.

 Oblique cutting  Shear force act on a larger area.

 Cutting Tools classification

 Single point cutting edge tool

 Multiple point cutting edge tool

 Single point cutting edge tool

 One dominant cutting edge

 Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius

 Turning uses single point tools

 Single point cutting edge tool

 These tools may be left-handed or right-handed

Example: Right handed / Left handed

 Single point cutting edge tool

 These tools may be left-handed or right-handed

 It depends on the cutting edge position

 Single point cutting edge tool

 Solid type and the tipped tool

 Multiple point cutting edge tool

 More than one cutting edge

 Motion relative to work achieved by rotating

 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge tools

Nose / Corner / Tip

Tool signature 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8

Nose / Corner / Tip

End Flank Side Cutting

End Cutting Edge Angle (µe)

Back Rake Angle (αb)

Positive Rake Angle

Negative Rake Angle

• In this type the deformed material instead of

• However, in case of ductile materials they cause

• Each of these layers get welded to the previous

• It also helps in having higher tool life and lower