ENDOCRINE GLANDS

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine system is made up of several organs called glands. These glands, located all over

your body, create and secrete (release) hormones. Hormones are chemicals that coordinate different functions in

your body by carrying messages through your blood to your organs, skin, muscles and other tissues. These

signals tell your body what to do and when to do it. These control many different bodily functions, including:

• Respiration
• Metabolism
• Reproduction
• Sensory perception
• Movement
• Sexual development
• Growth
FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• Controls the processes involved in movement and physiological equilibrium

• Includes all tissues or glands that secrete hormones into the blood

• Secretion of most hormones is regulated by a negative feedback system

• The number of receptors for a specific hormone can be altered to meet the body’s
demand
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• A structure which makes hormones in the body is called endocrine glands.

• They are also called ductless glands because they do not have ducts to secrete
their hormones.

• A group of endocrine glands which produces various hormones is called an

endocrine system. It is also called hormonal system.

• Endocrine system helps in coordinating the activities of our body.

VARIOUS ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• Hypothalamus

• Pineal gland

• Pituitary gland

• Thyroid gland

• Parathyroid

• Thymus

• Pancreas

• Adrenal gland

• Testes

• Ovaries
HYPOTHALAMUS
• The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei
with a variety of functions.
• One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous
system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS
• The hypothalamus is responsible for certain metabolic processes and other
activities of the autonomic nervous system.

• It synthesizes and secretes certain neurohormones, often called releasing

hormones or hypothalamic hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the
secretion of pituitary hormones.

• The hypothalamus controls body temperature, hunger, fatigue, sleep, etc.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone: This hormone is the master regulator of the
thyroid. The thyroid regulates metabolism, energy levels, and developmental growth.

Oxytocin: This hormone is involved in several processes. Mainly, it facilitates

childbirth and the release of a mother’s breast milk.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone: This causes the pituitary gland to release

hormones that keep the sexual organs for both men and women working properly.

Growth hormone: It commands the pituitary gland to either increase or decrease

levels in the body, which is essential for both growing children and fully developed
adults.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): This hormone helps to regulate the amount of water in
the body. This helps with blood pressure control.

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH): This is a hormone that helps regulate

metabolism and immune response by working with the pituitary gland and adrenal
gland to release certain steroids, particularly in response to stress.

Somatostatin: Commonly known as growth hormone-inhibiting hormone, prevents the

pituitary gland from secreting GH.
PINEAL GLAND
• It is a pinecone-shaped small gland located in the middle of the human brain in between the two
hemispheres in an area called epithalamus. It was once known as “the third eye”. It is the major
site for melatonin secretion, which regulates the body’s internal clock (Circadian rhythm).
• This gland is rich in calcium levels. The calcium acts as a radiographer to locate the middle of the
brain in X-ray images. It was also one of the last glands to be discovered.
• The pineal gland synthesizes melatonin and serotonin, hence they are also called as the Pineal
Gland Hormone. The pineal gland also produces neurosteroids.
• Serotonin is the precursor of melatonin. Serotonin is acetylated and methylated to yield melatonin
within the pineal gland. The light exposure to the eyes affects the synthesis and secretion of
melatonin.
FUNCTIONS OF PINEAL GLAND
Secretion Of Melatonin
This gland secretes the hormone melatonin which regulates the circadian rhythm
of the body and also certain reproductive hormones. The secretion of this hormone depends upon the
amount of light a person is exposed to. This hormone is produced in large amounts when it is dark.
The presence of light inhibits the secretion of melatonin which controls our circadian rhythms.
Cardiovascular Health
The melatonin secretion has a positive impact on the heart and blood pressure. It
may also be used for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.
Reproduction
Melatonin inhibits the secretion of reproductive hormones from the anterior
pituitary, which are responsible for the development and functioning of reproductive organs.
PITUITARY GLAND
• The pituitary gland, or HYPOPHYSIS CEREBRI , is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea
and weighing 0.5 grams in humans that plays a major role in regulating vital body functions and
general wellbeing. It is referred to as the body's 'master gland' because it controls the activity of
most other hormone-secreting glands.
• It is composed of three lobes: anterior, intermediate, and posterior.
FUNCTIONS OF PITUITARY GLAND
Growth
Blood pressure
Some aspects of pregnancy and childbirth including stimulation of uterine contractions
during childbirth
Breast milk production
Sex organ functions in both males and females
Thyroid gland function
The conversion of food into energy (metabolism)
Water and osmolarity regulation in the body
Water balance via the control of reabsorption of water by the kidneys
Temperature regulation
Pain relief
HORMONES OF PITUITARY GLAND
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) – stimulates the adrenal gland to release stress hormones, especially
cortisol. Under stressful conditions, cortisol is released in high amounts in the blood and regulates the
body’s reaction to stress. In particular, cortisol increases glucose metabolism, regulates blood pressure, and
reduces inflammation. In addition, cortisol plays a central role in fight or flight response, which is an
adaptive response of the body to perceived threats. Overproduction of ACTH can lead to Cushing’s
syndrome, whereas a low ACTH level can result in adrenal insufficiency.

• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone, which stimulates melanin production in the skin. It also regulates
appetite and sex drive.

• Growth hormone (GH) – this hormone stimulates growth in children and participates in maintaining various
body tissues/organs in adults, including bones, liver, and fat and muscle tissues. In adults, the
overproduction of GH causes acromegaly, which is characterized by increased bone size. In children, too
much GH causes gigantism, a condition of abnormal growth.

• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) – a glycoprotein that stimulates the production and secretion of
thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) by the thyroid gland. The thyroid hormones play a vital role in regulating
metabolism, energy homeostasis, growth, and nervous system activities. An overproduction of TSH leads to
hyperthyroidism, whereas a lack of TSH causes hypothyroidism .
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormones (LH) – these hormones are collectively known
as gonadotrophins, which stimulate the ovary to release estrogen and progesterone and the testes to
release testosterone. Both LH and FSH play important roles in regulating the growth and maturation of
sperm and egg cells. Abnormal production of these hormones causes menstruation-related problems,
sexual malfunction, and infertility.

• Oxytocin – this hormone stimulates uterine contraction, which is essential during the delivery of a baby. It
also stimulates milk secretion during breastfeeding.

• Prolactin – this hormone stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk after childbirth. A high prolactin
level can affect the functions of ovary and testes.
THYROID GLAND
• The thyroid gland or just thyroid is one of the largest endocrine glands and consists of two lobes connected.
• Each lobe is about 5 cm long, 3 cm wide and 2 cm thick.
• The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped organ.
• The thyroid gland is found in the neck, below the thyroid cartilage (which forms “Adam’s apple”).
• It secretes thyroxine hormone also called T4
• The thyroid also produces calcitonin, which plays a role in calcium homeostasis.
FUNCTIONS

• The thyroid gland controls how quickly the body uses energy, makes proteins, and controls how
sensitive the body is to other hormones.

• These hormones regulate the growth and rate of function of many other systems in the body.

• Thyroid hormones act throughout the body, influencing metabolism, growth and development, and
body temperature.

• During infancy and childhood, adequate thyroid hormone is crucial for brain development
HORMONES

• Triiodothyronine (T3): T3 is produced by the thyroid gland as well as in other tissues, via the
removal of iodine from Thyroxine (T4).

• Thyroxine (T4): T4 is also produced by the thyroid gland under the regulation of the pituitary
gland and the hypothalamus. It is secreted into the bloodstream and travels to organs such as the
kidneys and liver. Here, thyroxine is converted into its active form – triiodothyronine.

• Calcitonin: Hormone that your thyroid gland makes and releases to help regulate calcium levels
in your blood by decreasing it. Calcitonin opposes the actions of the parathyroid hormone, which
is a hormone that increases your blood calcium levels
PARATHYROID GLAND
• There are four parathyroid glands, and they are each about the size of a grain of rice.
• Though they’re located near each other, the parathyroid glands are not related to the thyroid gland.
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) has a very powerful influence on the cells of your bones by causing
them to release their calcium into the bloodstream.
FUNCTIONS

• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a hormone your parathyroid glands release to control calcium levels
in your blood. It also controls phosphorus and vitamin D levels. If your body has too much or too
little parathyroid hormone, it can cause symptoms related to abnormal blood calcium levels

• The parathyroid essentially helps the nervous and muscular systems function properly.

• Calcium is the primary element that causes muscles to contract, and calcium levels are very
important to the normal conduction of electrical currents along nerves.

• The most common disease of parathyroid glands is hyperparathyroidism, which is characterized

by excess PTH hormone.
THYMUS GLAND
• The thymus is a specialized organ of the immune system.
• The thymus is composed of two identical lobes and is located anatomically in the anterior superior
mediastinum, in front of the heart and behind the sternum.
• Each lobe of the thymus can be divided into a central medulla and a peripheral cortex which is
surrounded by an outer capsule.
• The thymus is largest and most active during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods.
• The thymus produces and secretes thymosin.
FUNCTIONS

• Helping the body protect itself against autoimmunity, which occurs when the immune system turns
against itself.
• The thymus plays a vital role in the lymphatic system (your body’s defence network) and
endocrine system.
• Protects the body from certain threats, including viruses and infections.
• Thymosin is a hormone secreted from the thymus. Its primary function is to stimulate the
production of T cells, which are an important part of the immune system. Thymosin also assists in
the development of B cells to plasma cells to produce antibodies.
ADRENAL GLAND
• The adrenal glands are two glands that sit on top of our kidneys that are made up of two distinct
parts-The adrenal cortex and The adrenal medulla.
• They are also known as suprarenal glands.
• The adrenal glands are two, triangular-shaped organs that measure about 1.5 inches in height and 3
inches in length.
• The cortex is the outer part of the gland. It produces the hormones cortisol and aldosterone. The
medulla, meanwhile, is the inner part of the gland. It produces the hormones adrenaline and
noradrenaline.
FUNCTIONS

• One of the most well-known responses – the Fight or Flight Response is triggered by the release of
stress hormones from the adrenal glands.
• The adrenal glands produce a variety of hormones. These hormones are very crucial for the normal
functioning of the body. For instance, the glands secrete cortisol, which has anti-inflammatory
properties and aids the immune system.
• The adrenal gland also helps to regulate metabolism and blood pressure through various other
hormones.
Mineralocorticoids
Aldosterone: Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid hormone that plays a central role in regulating blood
pressure and the levels of sodium and potassium (electrolytes) in your blood. This means aldosterone helps
regulate your blood pH (how acidic or basic it is) by controlling the levels of electrolytes in your blood.
Corticosterone: it helps regulate stress response and is also involved in metabolism and immune
function.
Glucocorticoids
Cortisol: is a glucocorticoid hormone that plays several important roles. It helps control your body’s
use of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. It also suppresses inflammation, regulates your blood pressure,
increases blood sugar and helps control your sleep-wake cycle.
Cortisone: steroid hormone that is used to treat inflammation and pain, particularly in condition such
as arthritis.
Androgen
Estrogen: Estrogen regulates the growth, development, and physiology of the human reproductive
system. This hormone also influences neuroendocrine, skeletal, adipose, and cardiovascular systems.
Estrogen is an important sex hormone produced primarily by the ovaries in females and testes in males.
Testosterone: Testosterone is a sex hormone that plays important roles in the body. In men, it's thought
to regulate sex drive (libido), bone mass, fat distribution, muscle mass and strength, and the production of red
blood cells and sperm. A small amount of circulating testosterone is converted to estradiol, a form of
estrogen.
Catecholamines
Epinephrine: also known as adrenaline, is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone. It plays
an important role in your body's “fight-or-flight” response. It's also used as a medication to
treat many life-threatening conditions.
Norepinephrine: also known as noradrenaline, is a neurotransmitter of the brain that plays
an essential role in the regulation of arousal, attention, cognitive function, and stress reactions.
Peptides
Somatostatin: Somatostatin is known to inhibit endocrine, exocrine, pancreatic, and
pituitary secretions, as well as modify neurotransmission and memory formation in the CNS.
Substance P:Substance P's most well-known function is as a neurotransmitter and a
modulator of pain perception by altering cellular signaling pathways. Additionally, substance P
plays a role in gastrointestinal functioning, memory processing, angiogenesis, vasodilation, and
cell growth and proliferation.
PANCREAS
• The pancreas is unique in that it’s both an endocrine and
exocrine gland. In other words, the pancreas has the dual
function of secreting hormones into blood (endocrine) and
secreting enzymes through ducts (exocrine).

• The pancreas is a 6 inch-long flattened gland that lies deep

within the abdomen, between the stomach and the spine.

• It is connected to the duodenum, which is part of the small

intestine.
FUNCTIONS

• The pancreas maintains the body’s blood glucose (sugar) balance.

• Primary hormones of the pancreas include insulin and glucagon, and both
regulate blood glucose. Insulin is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the
pancreatic islets. It regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and protein by
promoting the absorption of glucose from the blood into liver, fat and skeletal
muscle cells.
• Diabetes is the most common disorder associated with the pancreas.
TESTES
• The testes (or testicles) are a pair of sperm-producing
organs that maintain the health of the male reproductive system.
• The testes are twin oval-shaped organs about the size
of a large grape.
• They are located within the scrotum, which is the loose pouch
of skin that hangs outside the body behind the penis.

FUNCTIONS
• The testes secrete testosterone, which is necessary for proper physical development in boys.
• In adulthood, testosterone maintains libido, muscle strength, and bone density.
• Disorders of the testes are caused by too little testosterone production.
OVARIES
• The ovaries are oval shaped and about the size of a large grape.
• They are located on opposite ends of the pelvic wall, on either side of the uterus.
• The ovaries are each attached to the fimbria (tissue that connects the ovaries to
the fallopian tube).
• Ovaries produce and release two groups of sex hormones—progesterone and
oestrogen.

FUNCTIONS
• The ovaries maintain the health of the female reproductive system.
• Diseases associated with the ovaries include ovarian cysts, ovarian cancer,
menstrual cycle disorders, and polycystic ovarian syndrome.