STATISTICAL METHODS IN

GEOGRAPHY
1.What is Geography?

“Geography is concerned to provide accurate, orderly, and rational description and interpretation of the variable
character of the earth's surface.” - Richard Hartshorne (1959).

2.How do Geographers Approach Discipline?

 Positivism- objectivity of scientific analysis and testing hypotheses to build knowledge and understanding
 Humanistic- people create subjective worlds in their minds- behaviour understood only by a methodology that
penetrates the subjectivity
 Structuralists- cannot explain observed pattern by examining pattern itself. But rather establish theories to explain
development of societal conditions within which people must act.
3.Definition of Statistics:
Statistics refers to the Science of Statistical methods, where there are some theories and techniques that can be
compared with each other through data collection, presentation and analysis, such as - Frequency distribution of data,
Central tendency, Measures of dispersion, Skewness, Correlation and regression, Time series analysis etc.
 Statistics has been defined differently by different authors and each author has assigned new limits to the
field which should be included in its scope.
A.L. Bowley defines, “Statistics may be called the science of counting”. At another place he defines, “Statistics may
be called the science of averages”. Both these definitions are narrow and throw light only on one aspect of Statistics.
According to King, “The science of statistics is the method of judging collective, natural or social, phenomenon from
the results obtained from the analysis or enumeration or collection of estimates”.
 Significance/ Necessity/ Importance of Statistics for Geographical Analysis

i) Field study and collection of data:

One of the main subject-matter of geography is areal differentiation, analysis of spatial interaction of different elements
etc. So, it can be said that field study is one of the main subjects of geography as part of them. A full census or sampling is
required to collect data through this field survey. Now geographers have to take the help of statistics to select the right
sampling method according to the purpose of the field survey and the technique to carry it out perfectly.

ii) Distribution and pattern analysis of data:

Descriptive analysis is used to analyse the distributional nature of data obtained by field survey. From this type of analysis,
it is concluded that the distribution of the material is not skewed. If deviates from a normal distribution, what is the rate of
this deviation? Apart from this, the rate of central tendency of all those elements is determined by descriptive statistics and
measures of dispersion of the elements are done so that a vague idea of the geographical arrangement of the elements can
be obtained.
 Significance/ Necessity/ Importance of Statistics for Geographical Analysis

iii)Correlation analysis of spatial attributes:

With the help of statistics, the correlation of various national elements can be determined, such as the analysis of
the correlation level of different elements of the weather or the correlation analysis between different social
elements etc. Correlation determines the rate at which changes in one component change in another component and
whether changes in components are positively or negatively correlated with each other, etc. For example, if it rains,
it is natural that the flow of water in the river will increase, that is, there is a positive correlation between the
amount of rainfall and the flow of water. It is possible to know only through correlation analysis.

iv) Regression analysis of spatial attributes:

Statistics are used to estimate the rate of change of one geographical element relative to another. Regression
analysis the extent to which a change in one of two dependent factors should lead to a change in the other. A trend
analysis of what should be expected with respect to this change is also presented.
 Significance/ Necessity/ Importance of Statistics for Geographical Analysis

V) Time series analysis:

Geography not only discusses the pattern of data for a specific period, but also discusses the changes in data over
time. At the same time, it analyses the rate of change of the data (trend analysis). Time series analysis is used in
geography for this. With the help of this, the rate of decrease and growth of population over time, the rate of
change of production in agriculture and industry, the economic data of business and trade etc. are done.

Vi) Measures of disparities in distribution:

Statistics are used in geography to measure disparities. For example, Lorenz Curve, Gini coefficient, etc. are
used to measure income inequality or education rate inequality in different areas of an administrative unit. Or
Location Quotient, Sopher Index etc. are used to represent the national distribution of inequality.
vii) Regional Planning:
Since geography highlights the differentiation of regions, regional disparities in the regional arrangement and
distribution of various elements, regional planning in regional development is a subject of its own. Therefore, the
distribution, arrangement, disparity etc. of various natural and cultural elements in regional geography and
presentation of various projects for regional planning etc. have to take the help of statistics in geography.
 what is data?
Data is any qualitative, measurable and numerical information collected about an individual element or item
through observation from the field of research.

 Origin:
The Latin word 'Datum’ is derived from the English word 'data’. The etymological meaning of the word ‘datum’
is a piece of information.

 characteristics of data:
i)Data can be both measurable and immeasurable. For example, data on land use in an area is not measurable, but
the amount of rainfall in a place is measurable.
ii) Measurable data is expressed in numbers. These are called variable. The variable is always changeable.
iii) Qualitative data cannot be expressed in numbers, even if they are expressed, they are only symbolic. These are
called attributes. These express the quality of persons, objects, individual elements and item.
(iv) Measurable variables can be either discrete or continuous.
 Types Of Data

A) According to the sources of data collection, there are two types of data-
i)Primary data
ii) Secondary Data
i)Primary data:
primary data are those which are collected for a specific purpose directly from the field Survey, and hence are original
in Character, such data are published by authorities who themselves are responsible for the collection.
Example: Data collected during the census.

 characteristics:
(1) primary data is collected directly from the field
(2) primary data is collected by census or sampling method.

ii)Secondary Data:
Secondary data are those data which have been already collected and analysed by some earlier agency for its own use,
and later the same data are used by a different agency.
Example: The census figures published by the Registrar General of India will be primary data, while the same data
contained in any other publication will be called Secondary data.
 Types Of Data

According to the nature of data:

i) Qualitative data
ii) Quantitative data
i)Qualitative data:
Qualitative data refers to data that represents the characteristics or qualities of an object, person or item. Such information
is expressed by a symbol, letter or number. But in this case quantities expressed by numbers are never quantifiable. Since
qualitative data is not measurable, this type of data is called attribute. For example, caste, religion, gender, literacy, etc.

ii)Quantitative data:
All the data that can be measured i.e. expressed by mathematical numbers are called quantitative data, such as age, height,
weight, density, length etc. Such formulas accept any number and are called variables. Since quantitative data is expressed
in numbers, it is also called numerical data.
 Types Of Data
Variable: All data that are measurable are called variables.
Type: According to the nature of the variable, there are two types, namely-
a. Discrete and
b. Continuous.
a. Discrete Variable: When quantitative attributes are logically arranged according to geographic location, the
measurable variable that obtains absolute values relative to each location is called the discrete variable. Eg – population
size and density etc.
b. Continuous Variable: All variables that take any value within a certain range and are expressed in real numbers and all
variables that vary in value from place to place are called continuous variables, such as elevation, rainfall, etc.

According to the Frequency Distribution:

A) Ungrouped data:
Each term of data is so arranged or so few in number that they cannot be recorded in any category. This type of data is
called ungrouped data.
B) Grouped data:
When the collected data is organized and arranged in order and classified according to specific intervals and expressed in
the form of table, then it is called classified data.
 Frequency Distribution
Definition:
The organization or arrangement of raw data in table form showing its classes and
frequencies, are Called Frequency Distribution.

 Needs of Frequency Distribution Table

i) Arranging the data
ii) Statistical Analysis
iii) Graphical Representation Of data
 Components of a Frequency Distribution

• Class Limits
- The end numbers of a class. It is the highest and the lowest values that can go into each class.
• Class Boundaries
Are the "true" class limits defined by lower and upper boundaries. The lower boundaries can be determined by
getting the average of the upper limit of a class and the lower limit of the next class.
Class Interval It is simply the length of the class. It is the difference or distance of the upper- and lower-class limits.
Components of a Frequency Distribution
• Class Mark (x)
- Also known as the class midpoint. It is found by adding the upper and lower limits and dividing by two. It can also
be found by adding the upper and lower boundaries and dividing by two.
• Cumulative Frequency (F)
- The number of values less than the upper class boundary for the current class. This is a running total of the
frequencies.
 Constructing a Frequency Distribution

i) Array the given raw data in ascending order.

ii) Find the largest and smallest values. Compute - the Range Maximum - Minimum
iii) Selection of number of class: Compute for the tentative number of classes (K). The
ideal number of classes is between 5 and 15. Or you may use the Sturges Method:
Number of class(C)= 1+3.322 log N
C = tentative number of classes; N = total number of observations; log common
logarithm (base 10)
iv)Determination of class interval
a)Inclusive method Example: 10-19,20-29
b)Exclusive method - Example: 10-20,20-30
Frequency Distribution Ungroup Data
 Frequency Distribution group Data
Make a frequency
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