THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

LSE 3069: Fundamental Topics in Secondary School Geography

Compiled
by
K. Mundende (Dr.)
2021
 VULCANICITY
• Vulcanicity Defined:

 Geomorphic process that includes the formation of

both the internal and external landforms as a result
of the magma intrusion and lava eruption and
solidification, with their associated features within
the crust or on the earth surface respectively (Yogo,
2012:47)
 Vulcanicity
• Volcanicity Defined:
 Process that is only associated with the
extrusive volcanic landforms

• Volcano Defined:
 A mountain with a large opening at the top,
through which gases and lava are forced out
into the air (Yogo, 2012: 259)
 Vulcanicity
• Associated with two materials, magma and
lava; while volcanicity is a process
• Vulcanicity incorporates both the intrusive
processes and the resulting landforms and the
extrusive processes and its landforms
• Geomorphic features associated with
vulcanicity may be found on the earth surface
or within the earth crust
 Cont’d
• Intrusive features are also referred to as
plutonic features whilst extrusive features are
referred to as volcanic features
 Intrusive Volcanic Features
• Formed within the crust, before magma erupts onto
the surface

• Magma is molten rock material with high

temperatures that occur within the concentric zones
of the earth under intense pressure

• Due to high pressure in the cells, magma is always

forced to move out of the cells towards the surface of
the earth through points of weakness within the crust
 Cont’d
• Magma is referred to as lava, on reaching the
earth surface accompanied by materials that it
collects along its path towards the surface

• In case magma fails to reach the earth surface, it

gets trapped underground, cools and solidifies
within the crust to form intrusive (plutonic)
features
 Cont’d
• Formed Intrusive features are given different names
depending on the shape and size which they take within the
country rocks

• Such features include:

 Batholiths:
 cover more than 100 sq km
 Dome – shaped
 Mass of igneous rock that occurs when magma cuts across
the bedding plane country rocks and solidifies
Batholith 1
Batholith 2
 Cont’d
• Lapoliths:
 saucer – shaped
 covering may be up to 100 sq km in diameter
and 8 km thick.
 Forms when magma intrudes and solidifies
along the bedding plane of the country rocks
at the base of the geosynclines
Lopolith 1
 Cont’d
• Sills:
 Less than 1 metre to several hundred metres
thick
 It is a mass of igneous rock that occurs
horizontally along the bedding plane of the
country rocks
 formed when magma intrudes and solidifies
within the beds of the country rocks of the
sedimentary origin in the earth crust
SILL 1
 Cont’d
• Dikes (Dyke):
 It is a mass of igneous rock that occurs across
the bedding plane of the country rocks
 formed when magma cuts across the bedding
plane of the country rocks before it solidifies
 can be exposed to surface by the agents of
denudation and form a ridge.
Dyke 1
 Cont’d
• Laccoliths:
 umbrella – shaped
 mass of rock that occurs when magma
solidifies between the bedding plane of the
country rocks after forcing the upper layers of
the country rocks to bend upward, forming a
dome shaped mass of rock.
LACOLITH 1
LACCOLITH 2
 Cont’d
• Phacolith:
 mass of rock is formed when magma solidifies
at the base synclines or the crest of anticlines
in a folded landscape.
 The feature appears to bend either
downwards or upward in accordance with the
folded nature of the country rocks within the
crust.
PHACOLITH 1
 Extrusive Volcanic Features
• Features that are formed when lava erupts to the
surface of the earth

• The content of the eruption is known as lava

• Lava is accompanied with gas, liquid and solid

materials

• Gas materials include carbon dioxide and sulphur

 Cont’d
• Liquid part consists of molten rocks and
underground water that is expelled during the
eruption. The liquid of lava may be either
acidic or basic in pH

• Solid part of lava is called tephra. It may

consist of an assortment of ,materials such as
volcanic ash, dust, cinder, lapili, scoria and
volcanic bombs
 Cont’d
• The volcanic features that are formed differ
depending on:
 The type of eruption: Lava can erupt through a
vent or fissures (cracks on the earth crust).
There is explosive vent type and the non –
explosive fissure eruptions
 The materials contained: Either solid, liquid or
gas materials
 Cont’d

 The pH of the lava: It can be acidic or basic.

Acidic lava solidifies close to the vent, while
basic lava spreads in a wide area

 The prevailing environmental factors at the

time of eruption: Is it windy, etc
 Types of Volcanic Eruption
Two major types:
(a) Explosive (Vent) Eruption: Explosive and violent
eruption when lava come out through a large pipe in the
country rocks and a vent opening on the earth surface.
Features of Explosive Eruption
(i) Ash and Cinder cone:
 Cone – shaped volcanic feature
 Extends from few metres to several metres in height
 Solid materials that accompany lava during an eruption
 Cont’d

(ii) Acid Lava Cone:

 Formed by a non – violent eruption of acidic
lava through a vent to the earth surface.

 Acidic lava is highly viscous, thus, it tends to

solidify close to the vent of the eruption.
BASIC LAVA DOME
ACIDIC LAVA
 Cont’d
(iii) Basic Lava Domes (Basaltic Lava Shields):
 Formed when basic lava erupts onto the surface of the earth
 It is less viscous, thus, it spreads on the surface for quite some
distance before it solidifies.

(iv) Composite Cone/Parasitic Cone:

 Formed when eruption takes place on the cone of an already
solidified cone.
 Eruption takes place through minor vents on the slopes of the main
cone.
 hence form minor cones referred to as parasitic cones.
 The feature formed then consists of the main cone and the minor
cones, thus, referred to as composite cone.
COMPOSITE CONE
COMPOSITE VOLCANO
 Cont’d
(v) Crater:
 Funnel shaped depression formed at the vent of a
volcanic eruption.

 may also be formed when the volcanic plug is

blown off by violent subsequent eruptions or when
the vent is sculptured by the agents of denudations.
 Cont’d
(vi) Caldera:
 An enlarged crater that is formed by denudation
activities on a small crater or further eruptions
 It is usually filled with water to form crater lakes.
(vii)Volcanic plug:
 Mass of rock that blocks the vent of a volcano
 Formed when acidic lava solidifies within the pipe
of a volcano.
 Cont’d
(b) Non – explosive (Fissue type) Eruptions:
Lava comes out of rifts in the sides of the volcano,
or vents in a rift.
Features formed by Fissue Eruptions:
(i) Geysers: Volcanic water ejections that occur when
underground chambers of water are heated to the
boiling point by hot volcanic rock.
(ii) Fumaroles: similar to geysers, but release bursts of
hot gases. The water in these naturally heated springs
often exceeds temperatures of 60 degrees celcius.
 Cont’d
(iii)Hot springs: Streams of hot water that
flow from the geysers and join the overland
drainage on a volcanic landscape. Water
from a hot spring is usually rich in sulfur
mineral.

(iv) Volcanic plateaus: Volcanic features

on the earth that do not actually look like
volcanoes.
 Volcanic Activities
• Volcanicity may be grouped as: active, extinct or dormant
depending on the activity of the volcano.
• Active volcanoes: Mt. Nyiragongo, of DRC erupted on Sunday,
23rd May, 2021, leading to a mass evacuation in the city of
Goma, with a population of two million people.
• Extinct volcanoes: do not show any signs of activity since their
first eruption, and is never expected to erupt again. For
example, Mt Kenya and Mt. Elgon.
• Dormant volcanoes: volcanoes that are not active but are
expected to erupt in future. They are currently inactive but
considered by scientists to have the ability to erupt in future.
For example, Kilimanjaro.
 Influence of Volcanicity to Human
Activities

• Forms mountains that are tourist attractions and also play

part in modifying the climate of the places where they occur.
For example, Mt Kilimanjaro, modifies the climate of northern
Tanzania and the north eastern Kenya.

• Eruption leads to the formation of rocks which are broken by

the agents of weathering to form soil. Volcanic soils are
fertile, hence good for cultivation of crops.
 Cont’d
• Geysers are used for the production of geothermal electricity.
For example, the Olkaria Power Station in Kenya uses the
geysers to generate electric power that is used for domestic
and industrial purposes.

• Volcanic eruptions may lead to loss of life and property in case

they occur on places that are occupied by human beings and
livestock or wild animals. For example, in 1977, Mt.
Nyiragongo erupted and 600 people were left dead. In
January, 2002, Nyiragongo volcano, DRC erupted and
destroyed the city of Goma and killed 250 people and left 120
000 homeless (Daily Nation, 24th May 2021, p. 21.
 Cont’d
• Mount Nyiragongo has erupted again. This happened
on 23rd May, 2021. The mountain’s activity had not
been properly observed by the Goma Volcano
Observatory because the World Bank had cut funding
amid allegations of corruption.
 REFERENCE

• Daily Nation (2021). “DR CONGO residents flee

as Volcano erupts”. Monday, 24th May, 2021.
age 21

• Yogo, J. M., (2012). Ordinary Level Physical

Geography, Form 3 and 4: Notes, Questions
with Answers and Discussion Questions.
Nyambari Nyangwine Publishers: Dar es
salaam.
THE END