Anatomy of the

Nervous System
Chapter 13
 • Discuss the anatomy of key functional brain systems
• Limbic system
• Reticular formation

• Learn about how the brain is covered and protected

• Describe the anatomy of the spinal cord
• Explain the pathways of 3 major tracts in the nervous system
Learning • Spinothalamic tract
objectives • Dorsal column medial lemniscus tract
• Corticospinal tract

• Learn about 3 key spinal reflexes

• Stretch reflex
• Golgi tendon organ reflex
• Flexor reflex

• Describe the 12 cranial nerves – memorize these!

  Networks of neurons that work together but span wide areas of brain
 Limbic system
 Reticular formation

Functional brain
systems
  Structures on medial aspects of cerebral hemispheres and diencephalon
 Fornix: fiber tract that links limbic system regions
 Includes parts of diencephalon and some cerebral structures that encircle brain stem
 Large part of emotional or affective brain
 Amygdaloid body: recognizes angry or fearful facial expressions, assesses danger, and
elicits fear response
 Cingulate gyrus: plays role in expressing emotions via gestures and resolves mental
conflict

Limbic system
  Limbic system puts emotional responses to odors
 Example: skunks smell bad

 Most output relayed via hypothalamus

 Hypothalamus plays a role in psychosomatic
illnesses

Functions of the  Limbic system interacts with prefrontal lobes

 Allows us to react emotionally to things we
limbic system consciously understand to be happening
 Makes us consciously aware of emotional richness in
our lives
 Hippocampus and amygdaloid body also play a role
in memory
  Extends through central core of brain stem
 Three broad columns run length of brain stem
 Raphe nuclei
 Medial (large cell) group of nuclei
 Lateral (small cell) group of nuclei

 Has far-flung axonal connections with hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebral cortex,

cerebellum, and spinal cord
 Connections allow it to govern brain arousal

Reticular
formation
  Extends through central core of brain stem
 Three broad columns run length of brain stem
 Raphe nuclei
 Medial (large cell) group of nuclei
 Lateral (small cell) group of nuclei

 Has far-flung axonal connections with hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebral cortex,

cerebellum, and spinal cord
 Connections allow it to govern brain arousal

Reticular
formation
  Reticular activating system
(RAS)
 Sends impulses to cerebral
cortex to keep it conscious and
alert
 Filters out repetitive, familiar,
Reticular or weak stimuli (~99% of all
formation stimuli is not relayed to
consciousness)
 Inhibited by sleep centers,
alcohol, drugs
 Severe injury can result in
permanent unconsciousness
(coma)
  Motor function of reticular
formation helps control coarse
limb movements via
reticulospinal tracts
Reticular  Reticular autonomic centers
formation regulate visceral motor
functions
 Vasomotor centers
 Cardiac center
 Respiratory centers
  Limbic system dysfunction can lead to:
 Anxiety
 Depression
Clinical  Mood swings/emotional dysregulation
 Autism
connection:
limbic &  Reticular system dysfunction can lead to:
reticular systems 

Narcolepsy
REM sleep disorders & Parkinson’s
 Sleep apnea
 Coma
Brain review!
Brain review!
Brain review!
 • Discuss the anatomy of key functional brain systems
• Limbic system
• Reticular formation

• Learn about how the brain is covered and protected

• Describe the anatomy of the spinal cord
• Explain the pathways of 3 major tracts in the nervous system
Learning • Spinothalamic tract
objectives • Dorsal column medial lemniscus tract
• Corticospinal tract

• Learn about 3 key spinal reflexes

• Stretch reflex
• Golgi tendon organ reflex
• Flexor reflex

• Describe the 12 cranial nerves – memorize these!

 Meninges
 Function of meninges:
 Cover and protect CNS
 Protect blood vessels and enclose venous sinuses
 Contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
 Form partitions in skull
 Consists of three layers (from external to internal): dura mater, arachnoid mater,
and pia mater
Physical
protection of the
brain
  Strongest meninge
 Made up of two layers of fibrous connective tissue
 Periosteal layer attaches to inner surface of skull
 Found only in brain, not spinal cord
 Meningeal layer: true external covering of brain
 Extends into vertebral canal as spinal dura mater
 Two layers are mostly fused, but separate in certain areas to form dural venous sinuses
 Sinuses collect venous blood from brain, empty into jugular veins of neck

Dura mater
  Dura mater extends inward in several areas to form flat partitions that divide cranial
cavity
 Partitions referred to as dural septa
 Act to limit excessive movement of brain
 Three main septa:
 Falx cerebri: in longitudinal fissure; attached to crista galli
 Falx cerebelli: along vermis of cerebellum
 Tentorium cerebelli: horizontal dural fold over cerebellum and in transverse fissure

Dura mater (don’t

need to know the different
septa)
  Arachnoid mater
 Middle layer with spiderweb-like extensions
 Separated from dura mater by subdural space
 Subarachnoid space contains CSF and largest blood vessels of brain
 Arachnoid granulations protrude through dura mater into superior sagittal sinus
 Permit reabsorption of CSF back into venous blood

 Pia mater
 Delicate connective tissue that clings tightly to brain, following every convolution
Brain meninges:  Contains many tiny blood vessels that feed brain

Dura
Arachnoid
Pia
  Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) forms a liquid
cushion of constant volume around brain
 Functions
 Gives buoyancy to CNS structures
Cerebrospinal  Reduces weight of brain by 97% by floating it
so it is not crushed under its own weight
Fluid (CSF)  Protects CNS from blows and other trauma
 Nourishes brain and carries chemical signals

 Composed of watery solution formed from

blood plasma, but with less protein and
different ion concentrations from plasma
  Choroid plexus: cluster of
capillaries that hangs from roof
of each ventricle, enclosed by
pia mater and surrounding
layer of ependymal cells
 CSF is filtered from plexus
at constant rate
Cerebrospinal  Ependymal cells use ion
pumps to control
fluid (CSF) composition of CSF and help
cleanse CSF by removing
wastes
 Cilia of ependymal cells help
to keep CSF in motion
 Normal adult CSF volume of
~150 ml is replaced every 8
hours
  Choroid plexus: cluster of
capillaries that hangs from roof
of each ventricle, enclosed by
pia mater and surrounding
layer of ependymal cells
 CSF is filtered from plexus
at constant rate
Cerebrospinal  Ependymal cells use ion
pumps to control
fluid (CSF) composition of CSF and help
cleanse CSF by removing
wastes
 Cilia of ependymal cells help
to keep CSF in motion
 Normal adult CSF volume of
~150 ml is replaced every 8
hours
  Issues with the brain meninges can lead to:
 Meningitis: inflammation of the meninges
 May spread to CNS, which would lead to inflammation
of the brain, referred to as encephalitis
 Meningitis is usually diagnosed by observing microbes in
a sample of CSF obtained via lumbar puncture
Clinical  Problems with CSF circulation can lead to:
connection: brain  Hydrocephalus: obstruction blocks CSF circulation or
drainage, resulting in increased pressure
meninges & CSF  In newborns, skull bones are unfused, so increased
pressure causes head to enlarge
 In adults, rigidity of the skull keeps pressure within,
potentially leading to brain damage
 Can compress blood vessels and crush soft nervous tissue
 Treatment is to drain CSF with ventricular shunt to
abdominal cavity
  Helps maintain stable environment for
brain
 Chemical variations could lead to
uncontrollable neuron firings
 Substances from blood must first past
Blood brain through continuous endothelium of
capillary walls before gaining entry into
barrier (BBB) neurons
 Tight junctions ensure substances pass
through, not around endothelial cells
 Feet of astrocytes and smooth muscle-
like pericytes surround endothelial cells
 Help to promote tight junction
formation in endothelial cells
  Thick basement membrane surrounding capillaries is last part of barrier substances
must pass through
 Contains enzymes that destroy certain chemicals that would activate brain neurons
 BBB not totally foolproof; injury & high concentrations can alter its permeability

 Absent in some areas, such as vomiting center and hypothalamus

 Necessary to monitor chemical composition and temperature of blood

Blood brain
barrier (BBB)
 • Discuss the anatomy of key functional brain systems
• Limbic system
• Reticular formation

• Learn about how the brain is covered and protected

• Describe the anatomy of the spinal cord
• Explain the pathways of 3 major tracts in the nervous system
Learning • Spinothalamic tract
objectives • Dorsal column medial lemniscus tract
• Corticospinal tract

• Learn about 3 key spinal reflexes

• Stretch reflex
• Golgi tendon organ reflex
• Flexor reflex

• Describe the 12 cranial nerves – memorize these!

  Spinal cord is enclosed in vertebral column
 Begins at the foramen magnum
 Ends at L1 or L2 vertebra

 Functions
Spinal cord  Provides two-way communication to and from brain and
body
 Major reflex center: reflexes are initiated and completed at
spinal cord
  Protected by bone, meninges, and CSF
 Spinal dura mater is one layer thick
 Does not attach to vertebrae

 Epidural space
Spinal cord  Cushion of fat and network of veins in space
between vertebrae and spinal dura mater
anatomy  CSF fills subarachnoid space between arachnoid
and pia maters
 Dural and arachnoid membranes extend to
sacrum, beyond end of cord at L1 or L2
 Site of lumbar puncture or tap
  Spinal cord terminates in cone-shaped structure called
conus medullaris
 Filum terminale extends to coccyx
Spinal cord  Fibrous extension of conus covered with pia mater
 Anchors spinal cord
anatomy  Denticulate ligaments
 Extensions of pia mater that secure cord to dura mater
 Cervical and lumbar enlargements: areas where nerves
servicing upper and lower limbs arise from spinal cord
  Spinal cord terminates in cone-shaped
structure called conus medullaris
 Filum terminale extends to coccyx
 Fibrous extension of conus covered
with pia mater
Spinal cord  Anchors spinal cord

anatomy  Denticulate ligaments

 Extensions of pia mater that secure
cord to dura mater
 Cervical and lumbar enlargements:
areas where nerves servicing upper
and lower limbs arise from spinal
cord
  Spinal nerves
 Part of PNS
Spinal nerves  Attach to spinal cord by 31 paired roots
 Each spinal cord segment is designated by paired
spinal nerves that arise from it
  Two lengthwise grooves that run length of cord partially divide it into right and left
halves
 Ventral (anterior) median fissure
 Dorsal (posterior) median sulcus

 Gray matter is located in core, white matter outside

 Central canal runs length of cord
 Filled with CSF

Spinal cord
anatomy
  Gray matter and spinal roots
 Cross section of cord resembles butterfly or letter “H”
 Three areas of gray matter are found on each side of center and are mirror images:
 Dorsal horns: interneurons that receive somatic and visceral sensory input
 Ventral horns: some interneurons; somatic motor neurons
 Lateral horns (only in thoracic and superior lumbar regions): sympathetic neurons

Spinal cord
anatomy
  Gray matter and spinal roots (cont.)
 Gray commissure: bridge of gray matter that connects masses of gray matter on either side
 Encloses central canal
 Ventral roots: bundle of motor neuron axons that exit the spinal cord
 Dorsal roots: sensory input to cord
 Dorsal root (spinal) ganglia: cell bodies of sensory neurons
 Spinal nerves: formed by fusion of dorsal and ventral roots

Spinal cord
anatomy
  Gray matter divided into four groups based on of somatic or visceral innervation
 Somatic sensory (SS), visceral sensory (VS), visceral (autonomic) motor (VM) and
somatic motor (SM)

Spinal cord
anatomy
  White matter
 Myelinated and nonmyelinated nerve fibers allow communication between parts of spinal
cord, and spinal cord and brain
 Run in three directions
 Ascending: up to higher centers (sensory inputs)
 Descending: from brain to cord or lower cord levels (motor outputs)
 Transverse: from one side to other (commissural fibers)

Spinal cord
anatomy
  White matter is divided into three white columns (funiculi) on each side
 Dorsal (posterior)
 Lateral
 Ventral (anterior)

 Each spinal tract is composed of axons with similar destinations and functions

Spinal cord
anatomy
  White matter is divided into three white columns (funiculi) on each side
 Dorsal (posterior)
 Lateral
 Ventral (anterior)

 Each spinal tract is composed of axons with similar destinations and functions

Spinal cord
anatomy
  Spinal cord trauma can lead to:
 Paresthesias: caused by damage to dorsal
roots or sensory tracts
 Leads to sensory function loss
 Paralysis: caused by damage to ventral roots
or ventral horn cells
Clinical  Leads to motor function loss

connection:  Two types of paralysis: flaccid or spastic

 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
spinal cord  Also called Lou Gehrig’s disease
 Destruction of ventral horn motor neurons
injuries and fibers of pyramidal tract
 Symptoms: loss of ability to speak, swallow,
and breathe
 Death typically occurs within 5 years
 Caused by environmental factors and genetic
mutations involving RNA processing
 Involves glutamate excitotoxicity
 • Discuss the anatomy of key functional brain systems
• Limbic system
• Reticular formation

• Learn about how the brain is covered and protected

• Describe the anatomy of the spinal cord
• Explain the pathways of 3 major tracts in the nervous system
Learning • Spinothalamic tract
objectives • Dorsal column medial lemniscus tract
• Corticospinal tract

• Learn about 3 key spinal reflexes

• Stretch reflex
• Golgi tendon organ reflex
• Flexor reflex

• Describe the 12 cranial nerves – memorize these!

  Major spinal tracts are part of multineuron pathways

Major tracts of  Four key points about spinal tracts and pathways:
 Decussation: Most pathways cross from one side of CNS to other at some point
the nervous  Relay: Consist of chain of two or three neurons

system  Somatotopy: precise spatial relationship in CNS correspond to spatial relationship in

body
 Symmetry: pathways are paired symmetrically (right and left)
  Conduct sensory pathways upward through a chain of
three neurons:
 First-order neuron
 Conducts impulses from cutaneous receptors and
proprioceptors
 Branches diffusely as it enters spinal cord or medulla

Ascending  Synapses with second-order neuron

 Second-order neuron
pathways of the  Interneuron
 Cell body in dorsal horn of spinal cord or medullary
nervous system nuclei
 Axons extend to thalamus or cerebellum
 Third-order neuron
 Also an interneuron
 Cell bodies in thalamus
 Axon extends to somatosensory cortex
 No third-order neurons in cerebellum
  Somatosensory signals travel along three main
pathways on each side of spinal cord:
 Two pathways transmit somatosensory information to
Ascending sensory cortex via thalamus – be able to draw these!

pathways of the  Dorsal column–medial lemniscal pathways

 Spinothalamic pathways

nervous system  Provide for discriminatory touch and conscious

proprioception
 Third pathway, spinocerebellar tracts, terminate in the
cerebellum
  Dorsal column–medial lemniscal
pathway
Ascending  Transmit input to somatosensory cortex

pathways of the for discriminative touch and vibrations

 Composed of paired fasciculus
nervous system cuneatus and fasciculus gracilis in
spinal cord and medial lemniscus in
brain (medulla to thalamus)
  Spinothalamic pathway
Ascending  Lateral and ventral spinothalamic

pathways of the tracts

 Transmit pain, temperature, coarse
nervous system touch, and pressure impulses
within lateral spinothalamic tract
  Deliver efferent impulses from brain to spinal cord
 Two groups
 Direct pathways: pyramidal tracts
Descending  Indirect pathways: all others

pathways of the  Motor pathways involve two neurons:

 Upper motor neurons
nervous system  Pyramidal cells in primary motor cortex
 Lower motor neurons
 Ventral horn motor neurons
 Innervate skeletal muscles
  Corticospinal / Direct (pyramidal) pathways
 Impulses from pyramidal neurons in precentral gyri pass
Descending through pyramidal (lateral and ventral corticospinal) tracts
 Descend directly without synapsing until axon reaches
pathways of the end of tract in spinal cord
 In spinal cord, axons synapse with interneurons (lateral
nervous system tract) or ventral horn motor neurons (ventral tract)
 Direct pathway regulates fast and fine (skilled)
movements
  Indirect pathways
 Also referred to as multineuronal pathways
 Complex and multisynaptic
 Includes brain stem motor nuclei and all motor pathways
except pyramidal pathways
 These pathways regulate:
Descending  Axial muscles, maintaining balance and posture

pathways of the  Muscles controlling coarse limb movements

 Head, neck, and eye movements that follow objects in visual
nervous system field
 Consist of four major pathways:
 Reticulospinal and vestibulospinal tracts:
 maintain balance by varying tone of postural muscles
 Rubrospinal tracts: control flexor muscles
 Tectospinal tracts: originate from superior colliculi and
mediate head movements in response to visual stimuli
 Information Synapse
Tract Name Begins at Ends at Decussation
Carried Locations

Dorsal horn,
Somatosensory
Pain & temperature Sensory neurons in thalamus,
Spinothalamic cortex (postcentral Spinal cord
sensation skin somatosensory
gyrus)
cortex

Tracts to focus
your studying on: Dorsal column Proprioception & Sensory neurons in
Somatosensory
cortex (postcentral
Medulla, thalamus,
somatosensory Lower medulla
medial lemniscus soft/fine touch skin & joints
gyrus) cortex

Motor &
Voluntary motor Motor Ventral horn, Pyramids/medulla
Corticospinal somatosensory
control neurons/muscles muscles oblongata
cortex
 • Discuss the anatomy of key functional brain systems
• Limbic system
• Reticular formation

• Learn about how the brain is covered and protected

• Describe the anatomy of the spinal cord
• Explain the pathways of 3 major tracts in the nervous system
Learning • Spinothalamic tract
objectives • Dorsal column medial lemniscus tract
• Corticospinal tract

• Learn about 3 key spinal reflexes

• Stretch reflex
• Golgi tendon organ reflex
• Flexor reflex

• Describe the 12 cranial nerves – memorize these!

  What is a reflex?
 Definitions & function
 What are the components of a reflex?
 Anatomy
Spinal reflexes  How do spinal reflexes work?
 Pathways
 What can modulate a reflex?
 Environmental & cortical influences
 Carry out:
Are: Automatic actions like
Automatic, subconscious swallowing, sneezing,
responses to changes within coughing, and vomiting
or outside of the body
Maintain:
What are
Balance & posture,
reflexes? They: Regulate:
especially spinal reflexes
Homeostasis (autonomic
reflexes), including heart
rate, blood pressure &
Can involve:
digestion
Either or both the spinal
cord and brain
  We will focus on reflexes that are mediated by the spinal cord because
they have a well-understood anatomy, circuitry, electrophysiological
Spinal reflexes properties, and there is a growing knowledge of how they contribute to
behavior.
 The
REFLEX
Components of
reflexes ARC
Refers to the main components of
a circuit required for executing a
reflex.
 MUSCLE
Components of
SPINDLES
Non-contractile
reflexes muscle fibers that
serve as receptive
surfaces and help
regulate muscle tone
 GOLGI
TENDON
Components of
reflexes ORGANS
Proprioceptors that constantly
inform the brain about the state of
the muscle
  Whereas muscle spindles are most sensitive to changes in muscle
length, Golgi tendon organs are most sensitive to changes in
muscle tension.

Distinction
between muscle
spindles & Golgi
tendon organs
 Maintaining balance Regulating muscle tension Avoiding painful stimuli
when standing & walking to not damage muscles or insertion points such as stepping on a nail
(muscle spindles) (golgi tendon organs) (cutaneous & nocioceptive receptors)

Functions of
spinal reflexes
  Composed of a few intrafusal muscle
fibers that lack actin & myosin in their
central regions, making them non-
contractile. Instead, they are receptive
surfaces.
Anatomy of the  Wrapped by two types of afferent
muscle spindle endings: type Ia fibers (primary
sensory endings) and type II fibers
(secondary sensory endings)
 These regions are innervated by
gamma (γ) motor fibers.
Let’s look at the
muscle spindle in
a little more
detail & see how
the components
work together.
  Stretching the muscle
Let’s look at the activates the muscle
spindle, causing an
muscle spindle in increased rate of
action potentials on Ia
a little more fibers.
detail & see how Contracting the
the components muscle reduces tension
on the muscle spindle,
work together. causing a decreased
rate of action
potentials on Ia fibers
Muscle spindle
histology in
rabbit
  Made up of strands of collagen that are
connected at one end to the muscle
fibers, and merge onto the actual tendon
on the other end.
Anatomy of the  Each tendon organ is innervated by a
Golgi tendon single afferent type Ib sensory nerve
fiber (Aɑ fiber) that branches and
organ terminates as spiral endings around the
collagen strands.
 The Ib afferent axon is a large
diameter, myelinated axon.
Let’s look at the
Golgi tendon
organ in a little
more detail & see
how the
components
work together.
Golgi tendon
organ histology
in rabbit
  Flexor
 Muscle that decreases angle of joint when contracted

 Extensor
 Muscle that increases angle of joint when contracted

 Agonist
Physiology  Muscle that produces the primary/major force to complete a
movement (bicep in a bicep curl)
vocab review
 Antagonist
 Muscle that produces the opposite motion of the agonist

 Synergist
 Muscle that stabilizes a joint during movement, helping the agonist
 Also known as the knee-jerk, or myotatic reflex.
It is usually monosynaptic.

The stretch reflex

 Also known as the knee-jerk, or myotatic reflex.
It is usually monosynaptic.

The stretch reflex

  By sending commands to motor
neurons, the brain is able to set a
muscle’s length. The stretch
Key functions of reflex then makes sure the muscle
the stretch reflex stays that length. This reflex is
therefore important for
maintaining muscle tone and
upright posture.
 Also known as the flexion, withdrawal, or
The flexor reflex the “ouch, I stepped on a nail!” reflex.
It is always polysynaptic.
  The flexor reflex helps you to avoid injury by withdrawing your limbs
from painful stimuli.

The flexor reflex

The Golgi tendon Also known as the autogenic inhibition,
or inverse myotatic reflex.
reflex It is always polysynaptic.
  The Golgi tendon reflex helps you to avoid injury & tears to your tendons
by automatically forcing you to drop loads that are too heavy for your
muscles to handle

The Golgi tendon

reflex
  The Golgi tendon reflex helps you to avoid injury & tears to your tendons
by automatically forcing you to drop loads that are too heavy for your
muscles to handle

The Golgi tendon

reflex
  Cortical commands can modulate the stretch reflex response
 During voluntary movement, specific motor cortex neurons with corticospinal
projections are active
 Corticospinal axons branch and synapse on both alpha motor neurons and opposing Ia
interneurons

Modification of
reflex responses
  Depending on the context,
Modification of the same reflex pathway
reflex responses can execute a different
behavioral response.
  Suprasinal inputs can help “reverse” the Golgi
tendon reflex
 Descending pathways converge onto the Ib inhibitory
interneurons along with input from the Ib afferents,
and are able to influence the Golgi tendon reflex
 This can cause the reflex to have a net excitatory
Modification of effect on the signaling muscle!

reflex responses
  Alpha-Gamma coactivation helps
keep muscle spindles activatable
 When a muscle is fully
contracted, the spindle is
completely lax and unable to
sense any changes to muscle
Modification of length.
 Gamma motor neurons help
reflex responses overcome this by shortening the
muscle spindle, even when the
muscle is contracted.
 Cortical motor commands help
achieve this co-activation!
  Tonic excitatory activity can modify spinal reflex strength

Modification of
reflex responses

Increased gain brings the motor neuron closer to threshold for firing an action
potential.
Modification of Cortical / Tonic Alpha-
Supraspinal Excitatory Gamma
reflex responses Inputs Activity Coactivation
 Stimulus
Sensory Effect on
Reflex (Clinical Response
Receptor
Synapses
Muscle
Other Effects Function
Test)

Rapid stretch Stretched Muscle spindle Also excites Maintaining

Ia: monosynaptic
Stretch (Knee- of muscle muscle primary (Ia) Excites synergist & inhibits posture,
II: monosynaptic
Jerk, Myotatic) (such as tap contracts and secondary homonymous antagonist muscles countering
& weakly
Reflex on muscle rapidly (e.g. (II) sensory (same muscle) (reciprocal sudden

Summary of tendon) knee-jerk) neurons

polysynaptic
inhibition) loads

Golgi Tendon
spinal reflexes (Autogenic
Inhibition,
Large force on
tendon (such
Muscle tension
decreases (e.g. Golgi tendon Polysynaptic (via
Inhibits Also inhibits
Protective,
prevents
as pulling on homonymous synergist & excites
Inverse drop a stack of organ (Ib) interneuron) tendon
muscle when (same muscle) antagonist muscles
Myotatic) books) damage
resisted)
Reflex

Protective,
Sharp, painful Also inhibits
Flexor Limb is rapidly Cutaneous withdrawal
stimulus (such Polysynaptic (via Excites flexor extensor muscle of
(Withdrawal) withdrawn (skin) & pain from
as stepping on interneuron) muscle same limb & excites
Reflex from stimulus receptors painful
a nail) on opposite limb
stimuli
 • Discuss the anatomy of key functional brain systems
• Limbic system
• Reticular formation

• Learn about how the brain is covered and protected

• Describe the anatomy of the spinal cord
• Explain the pathways of 3 major tracts in the nervous system
Learning • Spinothalamic tract
objectives • Dorsal column medial lemniscus tract
• Corticospinal tract

• Learn about 3 key spinal reflexes

• Stretch reflex
• Golgi tendon organ reflex
• Flexor reflex

• Describe the 12 cranial nerves – memorize these!

  12 pairs of cranial nerves are associated with brain
 Two attach to forebrain, rest with brain stem

 Most are mixed nerves, but two pairs purely sensory

 Each numbered (I through XII) and named from rostral to caudal

Cranial nerves
  Memorize them!!! Find a mnemonic that works for you, there are lots
 You must memorize the order and function of each and be able to identify them on a
ventral view of the brain, but you don’t need to know the details about their
pathways in the brain

Cranial nerves
Cranial nerves
Olfactory nerve
(I, 1)
Optic nerve
(II, 2)
Oculomotor
nerves
(III, 3)
Trochlear nerves
(IV, 4)
Trigeminal
nerves
(V, 5)
Abducens nerves
(VI, 6)
Facial nerves
(VII, 7)
Facial nerves
(VII, 7)
Vestibulocochlear
nerves
(VIII, 8)
Glossopharyngeal
nerves
(IX, 9)
Vagus nerve
(X, 10)
Accessory nerves
(XI, 11)
Hypoglossal
nerves
(XII, 12)
Once again –
memorize the
cranial nerves!
Break before lab