AS 252 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL

NUTRITION
BY

FRANK IDAN, PH.D.

LECTURER
DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE, KNUST
EMAIL: frank.idan@knust.edu.gh/frankkidan@gmail.com
MOB: 0243389831
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BACKGROUND

 Teaching Philosophy
Every student has the potential to excel when given the right
opportunities and guidance
Studentsneed to stay focus, work hard, and be committed to their
academic work
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LECTURE OUTLINE

 What is Nutrition and Nutrient?

 Nutritional Requirements
 Components of Plants and Animals
 Six Classes of Nutrients and Functions of Nutrients
Water, CHO, Protein, Lipids, Vitamins and Minerals
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THE SCIENCE OF NUTRITION

 What is Nutrition?
 The science of nutrition examines the qualitative and quantitative requirements
of the diet necessary to maintain proper health of animals
 Involves various chemical reactions and physiological processes which
transform food into body tissues and activities
 Qualitative Requirements: Essential nutrients
 Quantitative Requirements: Balanced diet – correct nutrients, in proper
amounts, that is required by animals to stay healthy
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CONCEPT OF FARM ANIMAL
NUTRITION
 Farm animal nutrition refers to the components of feed, as well as their actions,
interactions, and balance in relation to animal well-being

 A well-fedanimal is more likely to be healthy and productive than a

starving/malnourished animal
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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS

 Nutrients: Any chemical element or compound in the diet that is required for
normal life processes
 Components of food capable of being utilised by animals
 Presently, more than 100 nutrients are needed in animal diets
 Nutrient is a specific element or compound derived from ingested feed and
used to support the physiological processes of life i.e.
 Provision of energy, and building materials for survival, growth, and other
production processes in animal
 Components of food capable of being utilized by animals
 Presently, more than 100 nutrients are needed in animal diets
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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS

 Essential Nutrient: A nutrient required in the diet because it can’t be

synthesized in the body in sufficient quantity to satisfy metabolic needs
 NB: Because of differences in metabolism, a nutrient may be essential in
one species but non-essential in another species
 Food: An edible material that provides nutrients
 Material that, after ingestion by animals, is capable of being digested, absorbed,
and utilized
 Animals are categorized into:
Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores, and Scavengers depending on the
type of food
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DEFINITIONS AND TERMS

 Diets: A mixture of feedstuffs used to supply nutrients to an animal

 Ration: An amount of feed allocated to an animal in a day i.e. how much

feed an animal gets per day

 Feed: Term commonly used to designate animal food

 Foodstuff/Feedstuff: Any material made into or used as food for animals

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GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF FEED TO
FARM ANIMALS

Feeds are important to farm animals for the following reasons:

1. Supply of energy to the body
2. Provision of body nutrients for growth
3. Production of milk, egg, meat, fat
4. Production of hair, skeleton, and muscles
5. Maintenance of body temperature
6. Replacement of tissues and building of new tissues
7. Maintenance of body activities like respiration, blood circulation
8. To produce resistance to diseases
 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6
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NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

 Plants vs Animals: Both plants and animals require Water and Energy
 Autotrophic: Type of nutrition in which organisms synthesize their own food from simple inorganic materials
such as H2O, CO2 and mineral salts in the presence of sunlight
 Plants and other chlorophyll containing organisms
 Process called Photosynthesis which is the opposite of respiration in Animals
Sunlight
 6 CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Chlorophyll

 Heterotrophic: Mode of nutrition in which organisms depend on other organisms for their food to
survive
 Cannot manufacture own food
 Mostly animals, fungi, and other non-photosynthetic organisms
 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6
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NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6
12
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6
13
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Essential Nutrients for Most Animals:

 Water
 Carbohydrates (Starch + Fibre)
 Lipids (Fats + Oils)
 Proteins
 Minerals = Macro and Micro
 Vitamins = Fat and Water soluble
 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6
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FACTORS AFFECTING NUTRITIONAL
REQUIREMENTS
 Gastrointestinal Tracts of Species
 Carnivores, Herbivores, and Omnivores
 Energy sources
 Carnivores/Omnivores – Fat/Protein
 Herbivores - Carbohydrates
 Age
 Level of Productivity
 Production, Gestation, and Lactation
 Environmental Factors
 Temperature, Humidity
 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6
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COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL FEED

What is actually contained in Animal Feed?

1. Moisture (Water)
2. Dry Matter
a. Organic Material: (N-containing compounds (proteins), lipids (fat
soluble), carbohydrates (water soluble), vitamins, nucleic acids, and
organic acids
b. Inorganic Material (Ash): Minerals Macro and micro/trace minerals; Any
mineral can be toxic in excessive amounts
 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6
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COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL FEED

Plants and animals contain similar types of chemical substances, can be grouped into
classes according to constitution, properties and function
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COMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

 Plants – Mostly water and carbohydrates

CHO- Readily available (sugars) vs fibrous components (crude
fibre)
Low in protein and fat
 Animals – Mostly fat and protein
 60% water, 20% fat, 16% protein, and 4% minerals
 Very low in carbohydrates (< 1%)
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THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
PLANTS AND ANIMALS BODY

 Physicaland chemical processes occurring in the protoplasm represents

the chemical composition of plant and animal
 Animal body derives all nutrients for its physiological functions from the
digestion of plant and plant products as well as animal products such as fish
meal and milk
 Knowledge of the chemical composition of farm animals is required to
understand their nutrient requirement while that of plants is essential because
they furnish most of the food for livestock
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THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
PLANTS AND ANIMALS BODY CONT’D

 Plants and animals' tissues are composed of similar type of chemical substances,
but their relative amounts vary
 Plants are analyzed by proximate method of analysis whereas, animal body was
first analyzed by Lawes and Gilbert (1858)by slaughter experiments
 Plants
and their by-products show much larger differences in the chemical
composition than the animals
 Proportions
of various body organs of animals change during the period before
and immediately after birth and during post-natal growth
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COMPARISON OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
BODY COMPOSITION

Parameters Animal Plant

Major constituent Water Water
Major Organic Constituent Protein Carbohydrate (CHO)
Structural Component Protein and Mineral CHO (Cellulose, Lignin
Hemicellulose etc.)
Reserve Material Fat (Glycogen) CHO (Starch)
CHO Amount Less More
Minerals Amount Generally constant to species Wide variation
Variations in Composition Less Wide
 Table 1: Chemical Composition of The Pig’s 21
Body During Early Post-natal Life

Post Natal Period (days)

0 7 14 28
Empty BW (g) 1450 3044 5248 9651
Lipid (%) 1.2 10.1 15.1 18.3
Protein (%) 12.0 14.4 14.4 14.6
Ash (%) 4.2 3.1 3.0 3.3
Water (%) 82.6 72.5 67.3 63.6
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SIX CLASSES OF NUTRIENTS

 Water
 Carbohydrates (CHO)
 Lipids (Fats & Oils)
 Proteins (CHON)
 Minerals
 Vitamins
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FUNCTIONS OF NUTRIENTS

1. Source of Energy: CHO, lipids and proteins

 Energy needed for heat production, fat deposition, and work
2. Maintenance: All nutrients
 Nutrients are needed for breathing, movement, digestion, maintaining body weight, keeping
warm etc.
3. Growth: Proteins
 Most rapid at early stages of life
 Increase in height, weight, building of tissues
4. Reproduction: All nutrients
 Development of maternal tissues and foetus
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FUNCTIONS OF NUTRIENTS CONT’D

5. Structural: Proteins, minerals, fats, and water

 Maintenance of structural Integrity
 Building/maintaining body structure, cushioning of body organs e.g., Heart
6. Regulatory: Vitamins, minerals, protein, and water
 Transport of nutrients, stimulating or catalyzing activities of hormones or enzymes
needed for particular metabolic processes
7. Production: All essential nutrients
 Meat, Milk, and Egg production
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FACTORS AFFECTING NUTRIENT
REQUIREMENTS

1. Species 7. Level of milk production

2. Breeds 8. Age
3. Weight 9. Sex
4. Body condition 10. Work
5. Growth 11. Environment
6. Stage of gestation
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WATER

 Composed of H and O in the ratio of  50% to 65% of body mass of adult

2:1 (H2O)  Water is the most essential dietary
 Largest single constituent of the body nutrient (indispensable)
mass of animals and may differ due to  Excessive loss of H2O is fatal
age and nutritional status  10% causes serious disorders
 90% of embryos  20% results in death
 70% of new-born animals
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SOURCES OF WATER

(a) Drinking water: Major source of H2O and consumed from outside sources
 Domestic farm animals all require copious amounts of water when producing at a high level particularly when
they are heat-stressed
(b) Water contained in feed: Moisture content of feed supply water to animals
 H2O content of feedstuffs consumed by animals is highly variable
 E.g., commercial diets for poultry contain approximately 10% moisture
 In forage, may range from 5 – 7% (mature plants and hays) to ≥90% (lush young vegetation)

(c) Metabolic Water (water of oxidation): Obtained from oxidation of organic components or metabolism of nutrients in
body cells
 Catabolism of I kg of fat, carbohydrate or protein produces 1190g, 560g or 450g of water
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FUNCTIONS OF WATER

 Absorption and transportation of nutrients to other parts of the body

 Temperature regulation
 Growth, digestion, reproduction, lactation, and lubrication of joints
 Gives body shape or form to cells
 Essential part of foodstuff. Makes food soft and palatable
 Involved in most biochemical & physiological reactions
 Essential constituents of almost all the juices or secretions of body
 Excretion of waste products from the body in the form of urine, faeces
 Helps in homeostasis (acid-base balance, pH, osmotic pressure, electrolyte concentration)
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LOSS OF WATER

 Urine:
 Acts as solvent for products excreted from the kidney
 Increases when excess water is consumed or diuretics (alcohol & caffeine)
 Faeces:
 May exceed urinary water in ruminants such as cattle
 Consumption of fibrous feeds results in excretion of higher amount of fecal water
 Evaporation from Body Surface and Respiratory Tracts:
 Water loss through vaporization from the lungs and dissipation through the skin and sweat
from the sweat glands in the skin during warm or hot weather
 Accounts for relatively large amount of total water loss
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WATER REQUIREMENTS

Difficult to state/predict and depends on several factors

 Environmental Factors:
 ↑ Env’tal temp and relative humidity ↑ H 2O requirement
 Accessibility: greater the distance between water and feed the less water the animal will consume
 Consumption of fibrous feeds results in excretion of higher amount of fecal water
 Dietary Factors:
 DM intake is highly correlated with water intake at moderate temp
 Water content of feed affects total water intake
 Protein level of diet: High levels of protein increases water intake
 Increases in fat and salt intake increase water requirement
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WATER REQUIREMENTS

 Animal Factors:
 Age, stage of growth, level of production, activity, health condition and pregnancy has direct
effect on water requirement
 Frequency and periodicity of watering
 Social or behavioural interaction of animals with the environment
 Water Metabolism:
 Includes absorption, homeostasis and excretion
 Absorption: occurs in all parts of the GIT mainly large intestine
 Homeostasis: maintenance of uniformity and stability of water, balance affected by water intake and water
losses
 Excretion: H2O is excreted from body by evaporation through skin, perspiration through expired air, and
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WATER DEPRIVATION/ RESTRICTION

 Moderate Restriction:  Increased blood concentration

 Reduced feed intake and productivity  Decreased blood pressure and cardiac
output
 Reduced urine and fecal water
excretion
 Discomfort and incoordination in
movement
 Severe Restriction:  Nausea
 Rapid weight loss  Prostration and eventually death if
 Dehydration accompanied by increased deprivation continues
renal excretion of N and electrolytes
 Increased respiration rate
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ENERGY

 Energy is not a nutrient but x’tics of  Symptoms of Energy Deficiency

some feeds  Increased feed intake
 Energy is stored in Carbohydrate,  Weight loss
Lipids, and Proteins  Wasting of tissues
 Functions  Death in extreme cases
 Growth
 Production (milk, meat, eggs)
 Maintenance of normal body temp
 Carrying out vital physical activities
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CARBOHYDRATES (CHO)

 Defined as polyhydroxy aldehyde, ketones or acids and their derivatives or compounds that
yield these derivatives on hydrolysis
 Neutral chemical compounds containing the element C, H and O with the empirical formula
(CH2O)n, where n ≥ 3 e.g. Glucose (C6H12O6)
 Basic units of CHO is Monosaccharides
 CHO serves as both structural and reserve material in the plant
 The animal body contains < 1% CHO, which are present in blood, muscles and liver
 The carbohydrate present in animal body is also known as glycogen
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CARBOHYDRATES (CHO)

 Major components of plant tissue, making up to 60% to 90% of the dry matter (DM)
 Dietary CHO obtained from plant-based products serve as a major source of
energy for the animal
 In plant cells, CHO could be present in the cell content as sugar or starch, or it could
be associated with the cell wall structure (e.g., cellulose)
 When animals consume plant materials (e.g., cereal grains, grass, fodder), the energy
in the feed’s CHO is converted into usable energy in the animal cell via metabolic
processes
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CLASSIFICATION OF CHO

Based on digestibility and solubility, CHO can be divided into two broad groups
(a) Soluble Carbohydrates: Called nitrogen-free extract (NFE) and include
simple sugar and starch, which are easily digestible in the body
(b) Insoluble Carbohydrates: Include hard fibrous substances like crude fibre,
cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin
 Less digestible by non-ruminants and easily digested in ruminants by
rumen microflora and microfauna
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CLASSIFICATION OF CHO

CHO is divided into 2 major groups:

1. SUGARS: Generally restricted to those carbohydrates, which contain < 10
monosaccharide residues
 Subdivided into 2 groups: Mono & Oligo
a) Monosaccharides: Simplest form of sugars that cannot be hydrolyzed
further into smaller units. Sub-divided based on the number of C atoms.
E.g. Triose (C3H603), Tetroses (C4H804), Pentoses (C5H10O5) and Hexoses
(C6H1206)
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1. SUGARS
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a) MONOSACCHARIDES

 Most monosaccharides in animal tissues are pentoses and hexoses

 Three hexoses that are nutritionally and metabolically important in animal nutrition are
glucose, fructose, and galactose
 Glucose exists primarily in a cyclic form and very rarely in energy production
 Fructose (“fruit sugar,”): found in ripened fruits and honey and is also formed by the
digestion of disaccharide sucrose.
 Galactose: found along with disaccharide lactose in mammalian milk and is released
during digestion
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MONOSACCHARIDES - Glucose

 Glucose can exist as α and β isomers

and has immense animal nutritional
implications
 These two isomers differ in their
orientation of OH on C #1
 E.g.,starch contains α-D-Glucose,
while cellulose has rigid polymers
withβ-D-Glucose
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b) OLIGOSACCHARIDES

Include all sugars except monosaccharides

 Monosaccharides linked together with the elimination of H 2O at each linkage and
 Produces di, tri, or tetra, containing 2,3, or 4 simple sugar molecules, respectively
 Disaccharides are made up of two monosaccharides bonded together by a
glycosidic (covalent) bond
 Sucrose: glucose + fructose (e.g., table sugar)
 Lactose: glucose + galactose (milk sugar) (only animal origin)
 Maltose: α-D-Glucose + β-D-Glucose (malt sugar)
 Cellobiose: β-D-Glucose + β-D-Glucose (cellulose) (not hydrolyzed by monogastrics)
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SUMMARY OF OLIGOSACCHARIDES
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2. NON-SUGARS

 Tasteless, insoluble, amorphous compounds with a high molecular

weight
 Divided into 2 sub-groups:
 Polysaccharides and
 Complex CHO
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POLYSACCHARIDES

 Polysaccharides: composed of many single monosaccharide units linked

together in long, complex chains by glycosidic bonds
 Major functions include energy storage in plant cells (e.g., seed starch in cereal
grains) and animal cells (e.g., glycogen) or structural support (plant fiber).
 In animal nutrition, components of cell wall structure are also called non-
starch-polysaccharides (NSP), or resistant starch, as they cannot be digested
by animal enzymes but are fermented by hindgut and rumen microbes
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POLYSACCHARIDES

 Grouped into Homopolysaccharides and Heteropolysaccharides

a) Homopolysaccharides: Single type of monosaccharide unit upon hydrolysis
 Homopolysaccharides of importance include starch (nonstructural form),
glycogen (animal form), and cellulose (plant structural form).
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Starch

 Principal sugar form of carbohydrate in cereal grains (seed energy storage).

 The basic unit is α-D-Glucose. Forms of starch in cereal grains include
 Amylose: Simplest of the polysaccharides, made solely of glucose units joined in
an alpha 1,4 linkage with nonbranching, and helical structure. Water soluble and
constitutes 15% to 30% of total starch in most plants
 Amylopectin: α 1,4 linkage with alpha 1,6 linkage at branch points. Not water
soluble and constitutes 70% to 85% of total starch in plant cells
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Glycogen

 Form of starch found in animal tissue and is hence called animal starch.
 Glycogen is a polysaccharide that is physically related to amylopectin with
basic alpha D-Glucose but has a mix of alpha 1, 4 and alpha 1, 6 bonds
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Cellulose

 The most abundant carbohydrate in nature

 Provides structural integrity to plant cell walls
 The basic unit is β 1,4 linkage, straight chain, and nonbranching
 Cellulose is highly stable.
 No animal enzyme can break it; only microbial cellulase can degrade it
 Ruminant animals have bacteria in their rumen that contain the enzyme cellulase
which breaks the beta 1,4 links of the glucoses in cellulose to release the sugar for
energy.
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b) Heteropolysaccharides

 Mixed
polysaccharides, which on hydrolysis yield mixtures of
monosaccharides and derived products
 A component of plant cell walls with a mix of 5 C and 6 C sugars
(e.g., hemicellulose and pectin, a mixture of pentose and hexose
units)
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II. Complex CHO:

 These are ill-defined group of compounds that contain CHO in combination

with non-carbohydrate molecules.
 They include the glycolipids and glycoproteins
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SUMMARY OF NON-SUGARS
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FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

1. Serves as a major source of energy in animal body

2. Involved in temp production, temp control and proper functioning of different
parts of the animal body
3. Essential components of milk as lactose
4. Stored as glycogen, excess of CHO in the diet is converted into fat and stored in
the fat depot. These are reserve energy materials of the body in liver and
muscles of animals and starch in plants
5. Aids in the absorption of Ca and P in younger animals
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FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

6. Help in the secretion of digestive juices in GIT

7. Provide suitable environment for the growth of rumen bacteria and
protozoa
8. Help in peristaltic movement of food
9. Maintain the glucose level of plasma
10. Component of several important bio-chemical compounds such as nucleic
acids, coenzymes and blood group substance
11. Play a key role in the metabolism of amino acids and fatty acids
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LIPIDS

 Lipids are a group of substances found in plants and animals, which are insoluble in
water but soluble in organic solvents such as ether, chloroform, hexane, and
benzene
 They act as electron carriers, as substrate carriers in enzymic reactions, as
components of biological membranes, and as sources and stores of energy
 Produces 2.25 times the energy of CHO or proteins
 Most are triglyceride (glycerol + 3 fatty acids)
 Fats are solid at room temp whilst Oils are liquid at room temp
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FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS

1. Main function of fats is to supply energy to the animal body. One

gram of fat after complete oxidation produces 9.3 Kcal heat. Fats are
reserved source of energy to the animal body
2. After hydrolysis, fats are converted into fatty acid and glycerol, thus
providing essential fatty acids (linoleic, arachidonic and linolenic) to
the body
3. Essential component of milk
4. Helps in the absorption of Ca and P in the body
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FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS

5. Aid in the absorption of fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E, and K) in the blood
6. Essential constituent of the body protoplasm.
7. Helps in temp regulation & insulation for vital organs, protecting them from
shock.
8. Required for the lubrication of joints
9. Fats are important nutrient of nervous metabolism
10. Delays the sensation' of hunger, as it requires a longer period of time to pass
through the stomach than carbohydrate and protein
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CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS

 Categorized into 3 main groups 2. Compound lipids:

1. Simple Lipids:
 Are esters of fatty acids with various
alcohols, particularly glycerol and
cholesterol
 Fats, oils, and waxes are simple lipids
 Fats and oil are esters of fatty acids
with glycerol and waxes are esters of
fatty acids with an alcohol
 Are esters of glycerol which contain two
fatty acid residues plus another chemical
group such as choline (linked through
phosphoric acid)
 They include phospholipids,
glycolipids, and lipoproteins
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CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS

2. Compound lipids:
 They include phospholipids, glycolipids, and lipoproteins
 Phospholipids are fats containing phosphoric acid and N
 Glycolipids are fats containing CHO and often N
 Lipoproteins are lipids bound to proteins in blood and other tissues
3. Derived lipids:
 Substances derived from groups simple and compound lipids by hydrolysis, -
i.e., fatty acids, glycerol, and other alcohols such as cholesterol, ergosterol and
sitosterol
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CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
 60
STRUCTURE OF LIPIDS

 Fats and Oils have the same general three molecules of water
structure and chemical properties but
different physical characteristics
 The melting point of the oils is such that at
ordinary room temperature they are liquid
while fats are solid
 Chemically fats are ester of fatty acid with
glycerol
 In nature 3 fatty acid molecules combine
with one glycerol molecule with release of
 61
FATTY ACIDS (FA)

 FA are the building blocks of fat

 Consist of chains of C atoms ranging from 2 to 30 or more C’s in length
with a carboxyl group on the end of each chain

 The general structure is RCOOH, where R is a chain of variable length

 The chain may be saturated (containing only single bonds) or unsaturated
(containing one or more double bonds)
 62
FATTY ACIDS (S FA)

Common Name No. of C Atoms Systemic Name

Acetic 2 Ethanoic
Propionic 3 Propionic
Butyric 4 Butanoic
Caproic 6 Hexanoic
Caprylic 8 Octanoic
Capric 10 Decanoic
Lauric 12 Dodecanoic
Myristic 14 Tetra decanoic
Palmitic 16 Hexa decanoic
Stearic 18 Octa decanoic
 63
FATTY ACIDS

Types of Fatty Acids

 Essential FA: They FA that cannot be synthesized by the body of
animals or in sufficient amount to carry out physiological activities
 Linoleic, Linolenic, and Arachidonic acids
 Non-essential FA: Those that can be synthesized by the body and
thus not a dietary requirement
 Most fatty acids except the 3
 64
FATTY ACIDS (U FA)
 65
GLYCEROL

The alcohol component of all tri-glycerides common in animal and plant tissues
and is a component of lecithin, cephalin and sphingomyelin
Mono-, di-, and triglycerides
These are esters of glycerol and fatty acids: - The fatty acid composition of
triglycerides is variable.
The chain length and degree of unsaturation of the individual fatty acids making
up the triglyceride determines its physical and chemical properties
 66
GLYCEROL

For example, simple triglycerides of saturated fatty acids containing

10 or more Cs are solid at room temperature, whiles those with less
than 10 Cs usually are liquid.

Triglycerides containing only long-chain saturated fatty acids are

solids, whereas those containing more of unsaturated fatty acids are
liquids.
 67
PROTEINS (CHON)

 Proteins are complex organic nitrogenous compounds made up of amino acids

(basic units)
 All proteins contain C, H, O, N and generally S, many contain P
 Element such as I, Fe, Cu and Zn are also occasionally present
 Eachspecies has its own specific proteins, and a single organism has
many different proteins in its cells and tissues
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PROTEINS (CHON)

 Most proteins contain about 16% N, which means that the weight of protein N
multiplied by 6.25 (100/16 = 6.25) equal the weight of protein
 E.g.Suppose a feed sample to be analyzed yields 1.0 gram of N by Kjeldahl
process, then the weight of protein is calculated as 1.0 x 6.25 = 6.25 g
 Milk N is multiplied by 6.38 because milk protein contains 15.87 percent N
 69
AMINO ACIDS (AA)

 AAs are produced when proteins are hydrolyzed by enzymes, acids or alkalis
 Althoughover 200 AA have been isolated from biological materials, only 20 are
commonly found as components of proteins
Structure of Amino Acids
 Aminoacids have a basic amino group (–NH2) and an acidic carboxyl group
(–COOH)
 AA are amphoteric (both acidic and basic properties) in nature and exist as
dipolar ions in aqueous solution
 70
AMINO ACIDS (AA)

 Most AAs occurring naturally in proteins are of the α type, having

the amino group attached to the C atom adjacent to the carboxyl
group
 71
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS

 AAs can be classified into 3 groups, namely, the aliphatic, aromatic and
heterocyclic amino acids
1. Aliphatic: AA containing an aliphatic side chain functional group. They are
nonpolar and hydrophobic. Hydrophobicity ↑ with ↑sing # of C atoms
 Alanine, Glycine (simplest AA), Isoleucine, Leucine, Serine, Threonine,
Valine, Aspartic Acid, Lysine, Glutamic Acid
 Cystine, Methionine, Cysteine (S containing AA)
 72
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS

2. Aromatic: AA with little or no charge. Such AA have stable aromatic ring that
does not easily react with other compounds or elements
 Phenylalanine, and Tyrosine,

3. Heterocyclic: AA forming a ring made up of C atoms and at least one atom

other than C
 Histidine, Proline, Hydroxyproline, Tryptophan
 ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO 73
ACIDS

1. Essential AA: AA that can not be synthesized by the body

and must be included in the diet
(Phenylalanine, Valine, Threonine), (Tryptophan, Isoleucine,
Methionine), (Histidine, Arginine, Leucine, Lysine)
PVT TIM HALL
 ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO 74
ACIDS

2. Nonessential AA: AA that can be synthesized in the body, hence not

a dietary requirement
 Alanine, Aspartic acid, Cystine,
 Glutamic acid, Glycine, Hydroxyproline,
 Proline, Serine, Tyrosine, & Glutamine
 ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO 75
ACIDS

 Limiting amino acid: essential amino acid found in the shortest supply
relative to the amounts needed for protein synthesis in the body
 Firstlimiting AA is the one in shortest supply relative to need or is the
essential AA that first becomes deficient in the diet
 Second limiting AA is the one in second shortest supply relative to need
 Lysine (Swine), methionine (Poultry), threonine & tryptophan are likely to be
limiting in diets for monogastric animals
 76
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

 Phenylalanine  Histidine
 Valine  Isoleucine
 Threonine  Leucine
 Lysine
 Methionine
 Arginine
PVT MAT HILL
 Tryptophane
PVT TIM HALL
 77
NONESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

 Glycine*
 Alanine
  Hydroxyproline
Aspartic Acid
  Proline*
Citrulline
  Serine
Cystine
  Tyrosine
Glutamic Acid*

* Required by chick for optimal growth


CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
 Proteins are classified based on their shape,
chemical composition, solubilities in water,
salt, acids, bases and alcohol
1. Globular Proteins: Soluble in water or in dilute
acids or bases or in alcohol. Includes all the
enzymes, antigens and hormones
 Albumins, Globulins, Glutelins, Prolamines,
Histones, Protamines
2. Fibrous Proteins: Insoluble in water and
resistant to digestive enzymes of animals
 Collagens – the major protein of skeletal connective
78
tissues
 Elastins – the proteins of the elastic tissues such as
tendons and arteries
 Keratins – proteins of feathers, hairs, claws, beak,
hoofs and horns
3. Conjugated Proteins: composed of simple
protein combined with some non-protein
substances as prosthetic group
 Nucleoproteins, Muccoids, Glycoproteins, Lipoproteins,
Chymoproteins, Metalloproteins
 79
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

1. Proteins form muscles and tissues of the body; hence 6. Essential for the formation of egg, milk protein, wool
it is essential for the growth and development of the and hairs of the animals.
body.
7. Provide the basic cellular matrix within which the
2. Help in maintaining the loss of body tissues and bone mineral matter is deposited.
muscles. 8. Under condition of non-digestion and no-chances for
3. Help in the formation of enzymes, hormones, antigen, denaturation, the protein accumulates inside the cells
antibody, digestive juices of the body and regulate and produce toxicity. i.e. venoms of snakes and
body osmotic pressure and acid-base balance. insects are infected by biting into the blood.
4. Help in the repair of body cells as well as for the 9. Endorphins (peptide) are found in brain and are
production of new cells. involved in the suppression of pain.
5. Also supply energy to the body in the absence of CHO
and Lipids
 80
SIGNS OF PROTEIN DEFICIENCY

1.Anorexia 9.Reduced birth weight of young

2.Reduced growth rate 10. Reduced milk production
3.Reduced or negative N balance 11. Reduced egg production in poultry
4.Reduced efficiency of feed utilisation 12. Reduced synthesis of certain enzymes
5.Reduced serum protein concentration and hormones
6.Anaemia 13. In severe protein or amino acid
7.Fat accumulation in the liver deficiency, growth is arrested completely
8.Oedema (in severe case)
 81
Signs of Excessive Intake of Protein

1. Above certain protein intake, there is a in ruminants fed urea as a NPN source.
linear depression in weight gain with Toxic symptoms in ruminants include:
increasing protein. uneasiness, laboured breathing,
2. Feed intake decreases excessive salivation, muscle and skin
3. Hair becomes dull and coarse tremors, incoordination, tetany and death
4. High protein diet reduces activity of within 2h of onset of symptoms.
several adipose tissue enzymes
associated with fatty acid synthesis in
pigs.
5. Ammonia toxicity is a practical problem
 82
MINERALS

 Composed of single solid substance of uniform normal growth and development

composition that cannot be physically separated  Mostly used in the synthesis of structural tissues
into simpler chemical compounds
2. Micro (Minor or Trace) Elements:
 About 40 mineral elements occur in measurable
Minerals required in relatively small amount
amount in nature in plants and animals tissues
for the physiological processes of the body
 At least 21 of these have been shown to be  Usually function as activators or as a component
required by animals of enzyme system
 Minerals are generally classified into two
categories
1. Macro (Major) Elements : Minerals required
in relatively large amount by the body for
 83
MINERALS

MACRO MICRO
 Calcium  Iron & Copper
 Phosphorous  Iodine & Fluorine
 Sodium  Cobalt
 Chlorine  Manganese
 Sulphur  Molybdenum
 Potassium  Selenium
 Magnesium  Zinc
 84
GENERAL FUNCTION OF MINERALS

 As a constituent of skeletal structure

 In regulating acid-base equilibrium
 They are helpful in maintaining the colloidal state of body matter and
regulating some of the physical properties of colloidal systems like viscosity,
diffusion and osmotic pressure
 They act as a component or an activator of enzymes and or other biological
systems
 85
FUNCTIONS OF SOME MINERALS
 86
VITAMINS

 Vitamins are complex organic compounds present in foodstuffs that are required in minute
quantities for normal metabolism and whose absence causes specific deficiency disease
 Organic substances required by animals in very small amounts for regulating various body
processes toward normal health, growth, production, and reproduction
 Cannot be synthesized by the animal and therefore must be obtained from the diet
 Exception: vitamin D may be synthesized on the surface of the skin by ultra-violet irradiation,
and nicotinic acid is synthesized to some extent from tryptophan
 87
CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS

 Vitamins are grouped into 2 based upon their animal body and are not excreted in the urine
solubilities in either fats and fat solvents or 2. Water-Soluble: Vitamins that readily
in water dissolves in water
1. Fat Soluble vitamins: Vitamins that dissolve  Except for B12, are not stored but excesses are
in fat rapidly excreted in the urine
 Found in in feedstuffs in association with the  A constant dietary supply of the water-soluble
lipids. vitamins is needed to avoid deficiencies
 These vitamins are absorbed along with the
dietary fats by mechanisms similar to those
involved in fat absorption
 They are stored in appreciable quantities in the
 88
FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS

 Fat-soluble vitamins include Vit A, D, E, K

1. A - maintenance of epithelial tissue
2. D - calcium & phosphorous metabolism
3. E - antioxidant – (selenium)
4. K - blood clotting
 89
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

 B1- Thiamine  Niacin

 B2- Riboflavin  B12- Cyanocobalamin

 B6- Pyridoxine  Choline

 Pantothenic Acid  Biotin

 Folic Acid C - Ascorbic Acid (not in

livestock)
IMPORTANT VITAMINS IN ANIMAL 90
NUTRITION
 91
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS

1. Vitamins are essential for the good health and play important role in the body growth
2. Provide resistance against diseases and increases the productivity power of animals.
3. Essential constituents of certain enzyme systems, regulate body metabolism and
clotting of blood.
4. Required during pregnancy for the development of foetus.
5. Vitamin ‘A' is responsible for the proper functioning of vision and Vitamin C keeps
the gums in healthy state
 92
FUNCTIONS OF SOME VITAMINS