FINALS

Determining Net Force

Net Force
The net force is the vector sum of all the forces acting on a
body.
Fnet  F  F1  F2  F3  
The net force is the resultant of this vector addition.

Bold letters represent vectors. The units of Force are Newtons, or the
abbreviation N, which represent the SI units: kg-m/s2
 SW #4.1 Calculating Net Force
Direction: Calculate for the net force in each given situation.
 FINALS

STRESS
 FINALS

STRAIN
 FINALS
Sample Problem #06

• A metal wire is 2.5 mm diameter and 2 m long. A

force of 12N is applied to it and it stretches 0.3
mm. Assume the material is elastic. Determine the
stress and strain.
 FINALS
Sample Problem #07

• A hollow steel tube with an

outside diameter of 200 mm is
subjected to an axial tensile
force of 400 kN as shown in the
figure. Determine the thickness
of the tube if stress is limited to
130 MPa
 SW #4.3 Stress and Strain
Direction: Solve the following problem.
1. A fishing line hook has a diameter of 5 mm, pulled by a force of 250 N.
Determine the stress.
2. The rubber cord wire has original length of 250 cm is pulled by a force. The
change in length of the cord is 4.7 mm. Determine the strain.
3. An alloy bar with 450 mm long and cross-sectional area of 42 mm 2, carries an
axial load of 10kN which produce an extension of 0.4 mm. Find the stress and
strain in the bar.
4. Two metal bars was suspended from a sample support bar. Bar 1 has a max load
of 750 N in an area of 25 mm2, while Bar 2 has 1500 N max load and area of 35
mm2. Determine which bar is much stronger.
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
A Basic Circuit
All electric circuits have three main parts

1. A source of energy
2. A closed path
3. A device which uses the energy

If ANY part of the circuit is open the device will not work!
WaysThere
to Wire Circuits (Physics 1)
are 2 basic ways to wire a circuit. Keep in mind that
a resistor could be ANYTHING ( bulb, toaster, ceramic
material…etc)
Series – One after another
Parallel – between a set of junctions and
parallel to each other
Schematic Symbols
Before you begin to understand circuits you need to be able to draw
what they look like using a set of standard symbols understood
anywhere in the world
For the battery symbol, the
LONG line is considered to be
the POSITIVE terminal and the
SHORT line , NEGATIVE.

The VOLTMETER and AMMETER

are special devices you place IN
or AROUND the circuit to
measure the VOLTAGE and
CURRENT.
The Voltmeter and Ammeter
Current goes THROUGH the ammeter
The voltmeter and ammeter cannot be
just placed anywhere in the circuit. They
must be used according to their
DEFINITION.

Since a voltmeter measures voltage or

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE it must be
placed ACROSS the device you want
to measure. That way you can measure
the CHANGE on either side of the
device.
Voltmeter is drawn ACROSS the resistor

Since the ammeter measures the current or

FLOW it must be placed in such a way as the
charges go THROUGH the device.
Simple Circuit When you are drawing a
circuit it may be a wise
thing to start by drawing
the battery first, then
follow along the loop
(closed) starting with
positive and drawing what
you see.
Series Circuit
In in series circuit, the resistors
are wired one after another.
Since they are all part of the
SAME LOOP they each
experience the SAME AMOUNT
of current. In figure, however,
you see that they all exist
BETWEEN the terminals of the I ( series)Total  I1  I 2  I 3
battery, meaning they SHARE
the potential (voltage). V( series)Total  V1  V2  V3
Series Circuit
I ( series)Total  I1  I 2  I 3
V( series)Total  V1  V2  V3

As the current goes through the circuit, the charges must USE ENERGY to get
through the resistor. So each individual resistor will get its own individual potential
voltage). We call this VOLTAGE DROP.

V( series)Total  V1  V2  V3 ; V  IR
( I T RT ) series  I1 R1  I 2 R2  I 3 R3 Note: They may use the
terms “effective” or
Rseries  R1  R2  R3 “equivalent” to mean
TOTAL!

Rs   Ri
 A series circuit is shown to the left.
Example a) What is the total resistance?
R(series) = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6W

b) What is the total current?

DV=IR 12=I(6) I = 2A

c) What is the current across EACH

resistor? They EACH get 2 amps!

d) What is the voltage drop across each

resistor?( Apply Ohm's law to each
resistor separately)
V1W=(2)(1)= 2 V V3W=(2)(3)= 6V V2W=(2)(2)= 4V

Notice that the individual VOLTAGE DROPS add up to the TOTAL!!

Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit, we have
multiple loops. So the current
splits up among the loops
with the individual loop
currents adding to the total It is important to understand that parallel
circuits will all have some position where
current the current splits and comes back
together. We call these JUNCTIONS.

The current going IN to a junction will

always equal the current going OUT of a
junction.
I ( parallel)Total  I1  I 2  I 3
Regarding Junctions :
I IN  I OUT
Junctions
 Notice that the JUNCTIONS both touch the
Parallel Circuit POSTIVE and NEGATIVE terminals of the
battery. That means you have the SAME
potential difference down EACH individual
branch of the parallel circuit. This means
DV
that the individual voltages drops are equal.
V( parallel)Total  V1  V2  V3
I ( parallel)Total  I1  I 2  I 3 ; V  IR
VT V1 V2 V3
( ) Parallel   
This junction This junction
RT R1 R2 R3
touches the touches the 1 1 1 1
POSITIVE NEGATIVE   
terminal terminal RP R1 R2 R3
1 1

RP Ri
Example To the left is an example of a parallel circuit.
a) What is the total resistance?
1 1 1 1
  
RP 5 7 9
1 1 2.20 W
 0.454  RP  
Rp 0.454
b) What is the total current? V  IR
8  I ( R)  3.64 A
c) What is the voltage across EACH resistor?
8 V each!
d) What is the current through each resistor?
(Apply Ohm's law to each resistor separately)
V  IR Notice that the
8 8 8 individual currents
I 5   1.6 A I 7   1.14 A I 9   0.90 A ADD to the total.
5 7 9
Ohm’s Law
Current through an ideal conductor is proportional to the
applied voltage
• Conductor is also known as a resistor
• An ideal conductor is a material whose resistance does not change with
temperature

For an ohmic device,

Voltage  Current  Resistance

V  IR
V = Voltage (Volts = V)
I = Current (Amperes = A)
R = Resistance (Ohms = Ω)
Current and Voltage Defined
Conventional Current: (the current in electrical circuits)
Flow of current from positive terminal to the negative
terminal.
- has units of Amperes (A) and is measured using ammeters.

Voltage:
Energy required to move a charge from one point to another.
- has units of Volts (V) and is measured using voltmeters.

Think of voltage as what pushes the electrons

along in the circuit, and current as a group of
electrons that are constantly trying to reach a
state of equilibrium.
Ohmic Resistors
• Metals obey Ohm’s Law linearly so long as their temperature is held
constant
• Their resistance values do not fluctuate with temperature
• i.e. the resistance for each resistor is a constant

Most ohmic resistors will behave non-linearly outside of a given

range of temperature, pressure, etc.
Ohm’s Law continued
Ohm’s Law continued
The total resistance of a circuit is dependant on the
number of resistors in the circuit and their
configuration

Series Circuit Rtotal  R  R1  R2  ...

1 1 1 1
Parallel Circuit     ...
Rtotal R R1 R2
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Current into junction = Current leaving junction
I in  I out
The amount of current that enters a junction is
equivalent to the amount of current that leaves the
junction
Iin I1

I in  I1  I 2  I out
I2 I1
I in  I out  0
I2 Iout
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Sum of all voltage rises and voltage drops
in a circuit (a closed loop) equals zero

Vin   VoltageAcrossEachResistor
Vin  V1  V2  ...
Net Voltage for a circuit = 0
V1 V2

V  V1  V2
V  V1  V2  0
V
Series Circuit

Current is constant
• Why?
• Only one path for the
current to take

V  V1  V2  V3
V  IR I  I1  I 2  I 3
R  R1  R2  R3
Series Equivalent Circuit

V1  I  R1 V2  I  R2 V3  I  R3
R  R1  R2  R3

V  V1  V2  V3
V  I  R1  I  R2  I  R3
V  I   R1  R2  R3 
V  IR
Parallel Circuit

V  IR
V  V1  V2  V3
I  I1  I 2  I 3  I1  I 23
Voltage is constant where I 23  I 2  I 3
• Why? 1 1 1 1
  
• There are 3 closed loops in R R1 R2 R3
the circuit
Parallel Equivalent Circuits

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
   let   so    
R R1 R2 R3 R 23 R2 R3 R  R1 R23 
1 1 1 1
and     R  R123 I  I1  I 2  I 3
R123 R1 R23 R
1 I1  I 2  I 3
V  I  R   I1  I 2  I 3   
1 1 1 1 1 1
   
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
We’ve now looked at how basic electrical circuits work
with resistors that obey Ohm’s Law linearly.

We understand quantitatively how these resistors work

using the relationship V=IR, but lets see qualitatively
using light bulbs.
Light bulbs and Power
Power dissipated by a bulb relates to the brightness of
the bulb.
The higher the power, the brighter the bulb.
Power is measured in Watts [W]
2
V
P  I2  R  V  I 
R

For example, think of the bulbs you use at home. The

100W bulbs are brighter than the 50W bulbs.
Bulbs in series experiment
One bulb connected to the batteries. Add another
bulb to the circuit in series.

Q: When the second bulb is added, will the bulbs

become brighter, dimmer, or not change?

• We can use Ohm’s Law to approximate what will happen in

the circuit in theory:
V  IR
P V I
Bulbs in series experiment
continued…
V
Recall:V  I  R  I 
R

When we add the second lightbulb:

V supplied doesn't change, but R increases
 I for the circuit decreases (but I1  I2 )

P  V  I  decreases
 The bulbs get dimmer
because the power dissipated decreases
Bulbs in parallel experiment
One bulb connected to the batteries. Add a second
bulb to the circuit in parallel.

Q: What happens when the second bulb is added?

 We can use Ohm’s Law to approximate what will

happen in the circuit:
V  IR
P V I
1 1 1
 
R R1 R2
Bulbs in parallel experiment
continued…V
V  IR  I 
R
P V I
1 1 1 1
  R
R R1 R2 1 1

R1 R2

V constant for the circuit, R decreases  I increases

 P increases as R decreases
The bulbs do not change in brightness,
but the total power of the circuit is increased
 Light bulbs are not linear
• The resistance of light bulbs increases with
temperature



R  Ro  1   T  To 



R  Conductor resistance at temperature T []
Ro  Conductor resistance at reference To []
  Temperature coefficient of resistance [C 1]
T  Conductor temperature [C ]
To  Reference temperature  specified for [C ]

The filaments of light bulbs are made of Tungsten,

which is a very good conductor. It heats up easily.
 Tungsten  0.004403 / C at 20C (i.e. To  20C )
As light bulbs warm up, their resistance increases.
If the current through them remains constant:
2
P  I R
They glow slightly dimmer when first plugged in.
Why?

The bulbs are cooler when first plugged in so their

resistance is lower. As they heat up their resistance
increases but I remains constant  P increases

Most ohmic resistors will behave non-linearly outside of

a given range of temperature, pressure, etc.
Conclusion
• Ohmic resistors obey Ohm’s Law linearly

V  IR
• Resistance is affected by temperature. The resistance
of a conductor increases as its temperature increases.
• Light bulbs do not obey Ohm’s Law linearly
• As their temperature increases, the power dissipated by the
bulb increases
• i.e. They are brighter when they are hotter
 FINALS
1. What is the voltage if a resistance of 25 Ω produces a current of 250 amperes?
2. What is the current produced by a voltage of 240 V through a resistance of 0.2 Ω?
3. What voltage is necessary to produce a current of 200 amperes through a resistance of 100
Ω?
4. What resistance would produce a current of 120 amps from a 6-V battery?
5. What is the current produced by a 9-V battery flowing through a resistance of 200 Ω?
6. What voltage produces a current of 500 amps with a resistance of 50 Ω?
7. What resistance would produce a current of 200 amps with a voltage of 2,000 V?
8. What is the current produced with a 9-V battery through a resistance of 100 Ω?