UNIT-4

UNIT-4
Tachometric Surveying: Fundamental
principles of tachometry, stadia and
tangential methods tachometry.
Curves: Types of curves and their necessity,
elements of simple circular curve, setting out
of simple horizontal circular curves.
‘Tacheometry’
refers to
“Quick
measure”
 Tacheometric Surveying

1) Tacheometric Surveying (or) Tacheometry (or) Tachymetry

is a branch of surveying in which the horizontal distances and
the difference of elevations are determined indirectly by the
instrument called tacheometer.

2) Method of Tacheometry is the used to prepare contour maps

or plans required for both horizontal and vertical control.
 Fundamental Principles of Tachometry
• Tacheometric surveying is defined as a method of angular surveying
in which a tachometer is used to determine the horizontal and
vertical distance between two points. Thus, eliminating the tedious
process of chain surveying to measure horizontal distance.

• The principle of tacheometric surveying is based on the property of

an isosceles triangle i.e. the ratio of the distance of the base from the
apex and the length of the base is always constant.
 Tacheometer and Its Characteristics

1) It is a Transit Theodolite fitted with stadia diaphragm.

2) Telescope should be fitted with an anallactic lens.

3) Magnification power of the eyepiece is kept high.

4) Value of multiplying constant, k=100

5) Value of the additive constant, C=0

Stadia hairs is also known as Stadia Lines
S
Anallactic lens are special lens
used in telescope in order to
eliminate the additive constant
(f+d) in external focusing
telescope but not in the internal
focusing.
Stadia Rod
 Methods of Tacheometry
Tacheometry are of two types mainly:
Stadia & Tangential Method Tacheometric Method

Tangential
fixed hair method Stadia
Method
Method

is
widely Used
Fixed
Movable Hair
Hair
Method
Method
S. No Theodolite Tacheometer
1. Used to measure horizontal and Used to measure horizontal
vertical angles and vertical distances and
angles
2. Distances are measured by Direct distances are measured
chain and tape
3. Suitable for plane and hilly Suitable for obstacles like
terrain river and broken ground

4. More stations are required for Less stations are required for
theodolite survey theodolite survey
S. No Stadia system
1. In stadia system fixed hair
method and movable hair
method are used to find out
horizontal distance.
2. In stadia system a telescope is
fitted with stadia hair in
movable hair method.
3. Two vane or targets are fixed at Two target are fixed distance
a known distance apart a
normally 3m.
Tangential system
In tangential system various
cases are being used to find
out the horizontal distance.
In tangential system a
telescope is not fitted with
stadia diaphragm.
apart is probably 3m to 4m.
S. No Stadia system Tangential system
4. In stadia system there is In tangential system there is less
more speed and readings speed and reading are not easily be
are easily be taken. taken.

5. Stadia method with the Tangential method or system is not

staff being held vertically in common use.
is in common use in
tachometry.

Stadia method - Commonly used in tachometry.

Tangential method - Not in common use.
 let 2 rays be equally inclined to the central
Stadia Method ray.
Central ray is shown as OC.
A2B2, A1B1, and AB are staff intercepts i.e.
S2 difference between upper and lower
S1 stadia reading.
OC2/A2B2= OC1/A1B1= OC/AB=
constant K= 0.5 cot (β/2)
S3

This constant depends entirely on the

angle β.
D1 Let, the constant is found to be 100. It
means the distance between the staff and
D2 the point O will be 100 times the staff
intercept & its base distance from the
D3
apex is D₁, D₂ and D₃.
 I II
3 4 22 .64
PRINCIPLE OF TECHEOMETRY
• Here O₁ a₁ a₂, O₁ b₁ b₂ and O₁ c₁ c₂ are the isosceles
triangles and its base distance from the apex is D₁, D₂
and D₃.
• The length of the bases or staff intercept is S₁,S₂ and S₃.
 Fixed Hair Method
Distance between the stadia hair is fixed, this method is called
the “fixed hair method.”

https://www.slideshare.net/sathananthankartheep/surveying-and-levelling-239339376
 Fixed Hair Method
Example : Ground Distance of 100 m apart
constant, variables (S1,S2,S3,S4)

i
 Fixed Hair Method
• In the fixed hair method the cross hairs of the diaphragm are kept at a constant distance apart and the

staff intercept varies with the horizontal and vertical position of the staff with respect to the Theodolite.

 In this system, the vertical distance between the upper and lower stadia hair is fixed and this fixed

distance is called the stadia interval (i).

 Stadia interval is not changed during the measurement. When the tacheometer is targeted at staff then

staff intercept (s) is obtained from the difference of readings of upper hair and lower hair.

 constant, variables
Fixed Hair
Method

S1 , S2, S3 are
variable.
β = Constant
 Movable Hair Method
 In this method of tacheometry, the distance between the upper hair and lower
hair (i.e, the stadia interval,) is varied by moving the stadia hairs vertically by
the micrometer screws.
 Here the staff intercept (s) is fixed.
 The accuracy of the movable hair system is less compared to fixed hair system
 It is quite difficult to measure the stadia interval accurately, and thus the
movable hair method is sparsely used. Fixed hair system is most commonly
used in practice.
 i= variables, s= constant.
 Movable
Hair
Method

β1, β2, β3 = Variable

S = Constant
i=variables, s= constant.
 Movable Hair Method
β1 β3

Telescope fitted
with stadia hairs

S which can be
S S
moved and fixed
at any distance
from the central

D1 hair.
D2
D3
β2
 Principle of Stadia Method

f
 DETERMINATION OF CONSTANTS OF
TACHEOMETER

D = KS + C, where K & C are the tacheometric constants. K is the

Multiplying Constant () (it is also known as distance Equation) & C is the
Additive Constant (f+D)
Equation
D= K·s + C
K= Multiplying constant = f/i
C= Additive Constant =(f+d)

Distance from intercept to staff

Multiplying constant
C= Additive Constant
Anallactic Lens : The telescope is fitted with an anallactic lens which makes the
additive constant zero.

For Anallactic lens.

Multiplying constant
Additive Constant
PROBLEM
The following readings mere taken with a tacheometer With
the line of Sight horizontal on a Staff held vertical Determine
the horizontal distance from the instrument Station to the
Staff. Station if & . Also determine the R.L of the Staff station
if the R.L of the instrument Station is & the height of The
trunnion axis is .
From Stadia method

of instrument axis

RL of Staff Station = 103.040-1.285

=101.755 m
PROBLEM
A Tacheometer was set up at a station P & observations were
taken on a staff held at The vertical circle reading being zero.
The reading were 1.980m,1.660m,1.340m. The reading from
P to a staff held at a BM of elevation 1020.50m was
2.85m.Find the distance PQ& the elevation of point Q. The
instrument constants were 100 & 0.5
PROBLEM
Find the stadia constants K & C from the following data. The line of sight was
horizontal in both cases.

Instrument Observations Distance Staff Readings

at to
P Q 50 m 1.354.1.603,1.852
P R 100 m 1.152,1.650,2.149
PROBLEM
Find the stadia constants K & C from the following data. The line of sight was
horizontal in both cases.

Instrument Observations Distance Staff Intercept

at to
P Q 100 m 0.99 m
P R 300 m 3.00 m
Tangential System
 Here in this system of tacheometry, the hairs are not required.

 This method can even be used when a telescope is not provided with a
diaphragm.

 The staff has two targets at a fixed distance (s) apart.

 The vertical angles are measured to the two targets.

 Now these vertical angles and the fixed distance on staff are used to
determine the horizontal distance and difference of elevations.
 Tangential Method

1.Both angles are angles of elevation

2.Both angles are angles of depression

3.One angle of elevation and one angle of depression

Both angles are angles of elevation
From
From
Both angles are angles of depression
Subtracting 2 from 1 we get
One angle of elevation and one angle of depression
(1)
(2)
Adding (1). & (2) we get.
Problem

Q) The vertical angles to vane fixed at above the foot of the

angles of the staff held vertically at a station A were
respectively. find the horizontal distance & the reduced level of
A. If the height of the instrument. determined from observation
on to a bench mark is above datum.
Sol:
Problem

Q) A theodolite was Set up at a Station A & vertical angles were

measured to vanes Kept at a Station B. The angles measured t0
the & marks were , respectively. A reading of was also taken
on a Staff held at a BM of RL 258.5 m . Find the horizontal
distance & the R.L of .
Sol: One angle of elevation and other angle of depression
 UNIT-4

Curves: Types of curves and their necessity,

elements of simple circular curve, setting out of
simple horizontal circular curves.
 To keep Driver Alert

CURVES
 CURVES
SUMMIT
CURVE

VERTICAL
HORIZONTAL CURVE VALLEY
CURVE
CURVE

TRANSITION
CURVE
CIRCULAR
CUBIC
PARABOLA
SIMPLE CURVE
SPIRAL
COMPOUND CURVE CURVE

REVERSE CURVE LEMNISCATE

CURVE
 Type of Curves

Horizontal Curve: A curve in plan to provide change in

direction of the central line of a road.
Vertical Curve: A curve in the longitudinal section of a
roadway to provide for easy change of gradient.
Simple Circular Curve

A simple circular curve

is a curve that consists
of a single arc of
uniform radius for
connecting two
tangents.
Compound curve

The compound curve consists

of two or more arcs with
different radii which turn in
the same direction.
The reverse curve consists of two simple
circular curves with the same or different
radius that bends in opposite directions.
Reverse curve
Reverse curve (or "S" curve)
 Broken-back curve
Broken back curve consists of two
circular curves with the same or
different radius joined with a short
common tangent.
In broken back curves the centre of
those circular arcs lies on the same
side. In earlier days these curves
are used for railroad traffic. But as
this curve is not suitable for high-
speed traffic, nowadays they are
not used.
 Degree of Circular Curve

The rate of curvature of circular curves can be

designated either by their radius (R) (100-m
curve), or by their degree of curve (D)

1718.87 1719
𝐷=
𝑅 or R=
D
Arc definition: The central angle subtended by a
circular arc of 30m (100-ft)

Chord definition: The angle at the center of a circular

arc subtended by a chord of 30m (100 ft)
Degree of Curvature : Arc Definition Chord
Definition

Road alignments use the arc

definition
chord definition is used for
railroad alignments
Arc Definition Chord Definition
Degree of curvature is inversely proportional to radius
as D increases, R decreases,
Chord Definition & Arc Definition
 Simple Curve Definitions
Radius (R) Long chord (L)

Back Tangent Mid ordinate (M)

Forward Tangent Length of curve (l)

Point of intersection (or) Vertex Right hand curve

Angle of intersection (or) Intersection Angle Left hand curve

Point of Curvature (PC) Sub-chord (C)

Point of tangency (PT) Normal chord

Tangent Distance (T)

External Distance (E)

Circular Arc
 PI Point of Intersection

Begin Curve (aka: PC - Point of Curve; TC -

BC
Tangent to Curve)

End Curve (aka: PT - Point of Tangent; CT

EC
- Curve to Tangent)
Δ
Deflection angle at PI; also the central
(or)
angle of the arc
I
R Arc radius
L
(or) Arc Length
l

LC Long Chord length

 T Tangent distance
External distance - from PI to
E
midpoint of arc
Middle ordinate - distance
M between midpoints of arc and
Long Chord

https://www.jerrymahun.com/index.php/open-access/viii-
curves/55-chapter-c-horizontal-curves?showall=1&limitstart=
Radius (R) : The radius is the radius of the circle of which the curve is an arc

Back Tangent : The tangent line before the beginning of the curve is called the back

tangent –AT1 is back tangent.

Forward Tangent: After end of the curve T2B is forward tangent.

Point of intersection (PI) (or) Vertex (V): Back tangent and forward tangent
when extended, intersect at a point known as (V)

Point of Curvature (PC):The point of curvature is the point where the circular
curve begins. The back tangent is tangent to the curve at this point.

Point of tangency (PT): The point of tangency is the end of the curve. The
forward tangent is tangent to the curve at this point.
 Elements of Simple Circular Curve
Length of curve, L
L

Length of Tangent (T)

Length of Tangent

Chainage of T1 = Chainage of V-T

Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T1 + length of curve (l)
 Elements of Simple Circular Curve
Length of long chord, L

External distance, E (or) Apex Distance

)
Middle ordinate, m
Problem

Q) Two Straight lines intersect at chainage , and the angle of

intersection is the curve is , determine (a) Tangent distance (b) length
of the curve (c) chainages of points of curvature & tangency (d) length
of the long chord, (e) degree of curve. (f)Apex distance and mid ordinate.
(a)
(b)

(c) Chainage of
chainage of
Problem

Q) If a curve is designed as a curve on a 30m arc, find the tangent

distance, length of the long chord, length of arc, apex distance & Mid
ordinate if the deflection angle is .
Simple Circular Curve - Offsets from
long chord method
M= mid ordinate

ordinates at various distances

Problem

Q) Calculate the ordinates on long chord at Interval for a circular

curve of radius 300 m & long chord 0f .
Sol :
Mid ordinate of long chord

Ordinates at various distances of 10m interval from centre

= 4.02 m
Two Theodolite Method