Chapter 2

PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
2.1 Atomic Structure and periodic
table
• Atomic number – number of protons
• Mass number– protons + neutrons
• Proton : + electron:- neutron: no charge
• An atom is neutral [n(protons)=n(electrons)]
• The higher the mass number, the more mass an atom
has
Arranging
electrons

• Electron shells – electrons

arranged on the shells
around the nucleus
• 1 s t shell has room for 2, 2 n d
and 3 r d have room up to
eight
• Electrons are held in place
by electrostatic forces
• Lithium, electronic structure:
2.1
2.2 Trends in groups within
the Periodic Table

Group 1 – alkali metals

• Atomic number and mass number
(size of atom increasing)
• Boiling point and melting point
• Reactivity increases
Structure of Group 1 metals
Group 7: halogens

• Chlorine, bromine and iodine are the three common Group 7

elements. Group 7 elements form salts when they react with
metals. The term ‘halogen’ means ‘salt former’.

Element Colour State

Fluorine, F2 Pale yellow Gas Reactivity
decrease
Chlorine, Cl2 Pale green Gas
Bromine, Br2 Brown Liquid
Iodine, I2 Purple-black Solid
Melting and boiling
point
The melting point and the boiling
point of the halogens increase going
down group 7. This is because, going
down group 7:
• the molecules become larger
• the intermolecular forces become
stronger
• More energy is needed to overcome
these forces
Structure of
fluorine and
chlorine
Group 6:
Noble gases

• Inert (unreactive)
• Very stable
• Gases
• Low melting and
boiling point
structure
2.3 Why elements react to form
compounds
• What is compound? Molecule?
• Outermost electron shell has the highest energy level
• In the 1 st electron shell, can occupy 2 electrons, and
8 for 2 nd and 3 rd
• Proton is +vely charged, electron –vely charged
• Atoms have no overall, because no of protons=no of
electrons
Elements react?

• Atom is most stable when the outer shell is fully

occupied. Eg, noble gases
• Other groups do not have full outer shell of
electrons – react with other to form compound
• By -> sharing electron
->gaining or losing electron
Losing electrons to form + ions

• Eg, sodium 2.8.1

• Lose one electron, become ion, more
stable
• Sodium ion is more stable than sodium
atom
Gaining
electrons to
form - ion

• Group 7, e.g.
Chlorine 2.8.7
• Gain one electron
– outer shell now
is full, form Cl -
• Ion Cl - is more
stable than atom
Cl
 • E.g. elements of group 1 with group 7
(sodium and chlorine form sodium chloride)
Ionic bonds • Sodium ion is + charged and chlorine ion is
– charged, both attracts and form a bond.
NaCl
• Reactivity: Potassium > sodium > lithium
• Electrons in the outer shell of potassium lose easily
than sodium and lithium
• Potassium is bigger, the electron at the outermost is
the furthest from the protons – easier to overcome
the forces
• Fluorine more reactive than chlorine
• Flourine gains electron at the outermost shell more
easily than chlorine – closer to protons than that in
chlorine, so more readily attract electron
 • MgO, magnesium oxide
Other ionic • MgCl 2
compounds
Sharing
electrons

• Non-metals with other non-

metals
• E.g. Hydrogen [1] and
Chlorine [2.8.7] – molecule
of hydrogen chloride is
form, HCl
• This type of chemical bond
formed by sharing electrons
is called covalent bond
Other examples:
• H2
• NH 3 (Nitrogen, 2.5)
2.4 Simple and giant structure

• Sodium chloride (salt); Na + and Cl - have equal and

opposite electrical charges, so they strongly attract
to each other
• Form ionic bonds in all direction
• Giant structure call lattice with regular pattern
Covalent structure

• CO 2 , O 2 , H 2 O form simple molecules with

strong covalent bond
• However, forces between molecules are
weak – intermolecular forces
• Giant covalent structure: Silicon dioxide
Giant structures of Carbon

• Carbon in diamond
• Each carbon atom forms 4 covalent bonds with
others
• Soft carbon giant structure : graphite (lead)
• Why soft: each carbon atom forms 3 covalent bond
• This forms layers, which can easily slide over one
another
• Bonds between layers are weak – surface very soft,
come off easily
Properties of ionic and covalent
substances
Ionic compounds Covalent
substances
Melting and boiling High ( strong ionic Low (weak
points bonds) intermolecular
forces)

Electric Yes when dissolves Simple covalent

conductivity in water or melt molecules do not