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Economics HO Final
Economics HO Final
Economics HO Final
11/09/23 1
Chapter one
Introduction
– Definition of economics
– Concepts and principles
– Classification of economics
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Introduction
Economics is:
• Economics: is defined as the study of
allocation of scarce resources among
competing wants so as to “maximize” the
satisfaction of those wants.
• It is also concerned about how the produced
items are distributed among us.
• It analyses the costs and benefits of improving
patterns of resource allocation.
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Introduction…
• Economics is the study of how societies use
scarce resources to provide valuable
commodities and distribute them among
different groups.
• It is the science of choice.
• It is the study of commerce among nations.
• It explains why nations export some goods and
import others and analyze the effect of putting
economic barriers at national frontiers.
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Health economics
• …HOW to maximize the health of population
given constrained health producing resources.
What health economists need is…
To understand the relationship between resources
used and health outcomes achieved by alternative
options.
…and compare!
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Health economics…
• Health economics can be defined broadly as
the application of the theories, concepts and
techniques of economics to health sector .
• It is thus concerned with such matters as:
– The allocation of resources to various health
promoting activities
– The quantity of resources used in health delivery
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Health economics…
• The efficiency with which resources are
allocated and used for health purposes
• The effect of preventive, curative and
rehabilitative health services on individuals
and society.
• The organization and funding of health
institutions
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Three basic questions of economics
1. What to produce?
2. How to produce?
3. For whom to produce?
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Health economic problem
Unlimited healthcare “wants” with rapid
growth in health expenditure.
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Concepts and principles
Scarcity: implies choices have to be made regarding how
and where to use limited resources to address unlimited
human wants.
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Classification…
• Positive economics
– is concerned simply with description of facts,
circumstances, and relationships in the economy.
– Attempts to determine the consequences of a particular
policy and which groups benefit and which groups bear
the burden of the policy
– It deals with objective scientific explanation of economic
happenings like, what will be the effect of higher taxes
on tobacco consumption? How does higher price on
bread affect the demand for bread, etc.
– Here you are more of a scientist.
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Classification…
• Economics is also classified by level and type of issues it
deals with as:
• Microeconomics
– is concerned with the behavior of individual prices
and quantities (issues at individual level) and of a
particular markets and industry.
– It is about scarcity and choice, with individual markets
and goods, price mechanism, and how it works.
– It deals with production, consumption, and exchange
decision with emphasis on supply, demand and price
mechanisms and how they direct economic activities.
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Classification…
• Macroeconomics
– deals with the behavior of the economy as a
whole or with the broad aggregate of economic
life.
– deals with the problem that apply to economy as
a whole.
– It is the study of rate of flow in the economy
(income, unemployment, output spending,
investment, etc) and what factors influence this
rate of flow.
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2. Health and development
Health and development
– Meaning of health and development
– Impact of economy on health
– Impact of health on economy
– Economic /Health indicators
– Link between Poverty and Health
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Meaning of health and development
Is Health a capital?
– Of course, because it helps a person to produce
other things.
– Only a healthy person can be effectively
productive.
Is health care an investment?
– Yes, because we enjoy life when we are healthy
which is the consumption side of health.
– On the other hand, health enhances the
productivity of labor and ensures growth in future
which means investment in health care increases
capital.
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Meaning of health and development…
• Development is a comprehensive concept.
• According to UNDP it includes:
• Income distribution
• Level of Education and skill
• Health status of population
• Gender balance
• Political representation
• Natural resources management
• And others
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Impact of Economy on Health
• Poverty at household level:
– Poor diet
– Poor housing and sanitation
– Poor individual and group attitude
• Poverty at country level:
– Low allocation of resources to public health programs
– IMR (poor countries) = 215/’000
– IMR (rich countries) = 42/’000
• There is correlation between economic development and high
life expectancy
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Impact of Economy on Health…
• Growth on its own does not guarantee improved
health status development.
• It depends on:
– How growth takes place
– How benefits are distributed
– How benefits are reinvested
– How public spending is used
– Who controls resources in the family and their
priority
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Impact of Economy on Health…
Labour
supply
HEALTH Education ECONOMY
Saving
Impact of health on…
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• Annual days of absence due to illness per
employee
• High alcohol consumption significantly
increases the probability of job loss.
• The death of a household member
affects other household members’
welfare:
• Chronic illness affects household
incomes:
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HEALTH AND …
Therefore, the relationship between health and
economy show a two-way interaction.
Health Economy
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The interrelationship of health, health
care and the economy
Key messages
• Health system and economic systems are not
independent. They are interrelated in several
ways.
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Health indicators
• Infant mortality rate (IMR)
Used as an indicator of the health of the
population
• Infants have less developed immune systems
• More likely to die from diseases in the
environment
• Nutrition
Nutrition is a good measure of general
susceptibility to health since it is the under lying
cause of many disease.
• Malnourished have a weaker immune system
(World Bank)
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Health indicators…
– Health indicators in developing countries fall short of
developed countries
• e.g., life expectancy at birth for females is:
Low income countries: 59
Middle income countries: 72
High income countries: 81
• Great improvements in access to water but still very
high IMR in developing countries
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Health indicators…
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Health indicators…
Difference in health outcomes between developed and
developing countries
In Developing Countries:
• Age distribution of ill health skewed toward infants and
pre-school children – policy incline as well
• More communicable than non-communicable
• Adults more likely to be afflicted with health problems
Result of poor health when a child
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Poverty affects health: Theory
1. Poor cannot buy health care
2. Poor more likely to be malnourished
3. Lack of income to buy drugs
4. Poor are more likely to live far away from
doctors and hospitals
5. Poor less likely to be educated
6. Poor and uneducated girls are more
vulnerable to AIDS
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Health affects poverty
– Low life expectancy leads to lower investment in
education and health because less years to obtain
the returns to those investments.
– If you live in high disease environments it is more
likely one or more of your parents will die.
– This affects the level of education and health of
the child (human capital).
This is especially the case in HIV/AIDS prevalent areas.
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Health affects poverty
1. Poor health reduces national savings and capital
accumulation
2. Poor health also leads to the wrong choice of
institutions in a country
3. Health inequality leads to less social cohesion and
larger probability of unrest
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Health affect education
Mechanism through which health affects
schooling:
1. Poor health leads to worse attendance and
attention in class
2. Poor nutrition leads to poor brain
development which affects learning
3. Parental death
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Health and labor outcomes
• Better health may improve wages and labor
productivity (hours supplied/work done)
Can work more hours and get more done during
the same amount of hours when are healthier.
Better health as a child leads to improved
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Thank you!!
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3. Demand and Supply
• Demand, Needs and Consumption
– Demand as a function of price
– Elasticity of Demand
• Supply, Production
– Supply as a function of price
– Elasticity of supply
– Production
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Market, Demand and Supply
• Market is an arrangement by which buyers
and sellers of a commodity interact to
determine its price and quantity.
• The two sides, supply and demand, interact in
the market to set the price and quantity of the
good through the price mechanism.
• Thus, through price mechanism market
decides what, how and for whom to produce.
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Demand
• Demand is the amount of a good (service)
buyers want to purchase at different prices.
• It refers to the willingness or desire and ability
to buy a good.
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Demand
• Factors affecting demand for a good or service are:
own price (P)
Average income (Y)
Population (group size) (G)
Price of related goods (Pxy)
» Complementary
» Substitutes
Tastes (T)
Expectation of future prices and income (Ex)
Other factors
Qd = f(P,Y,G,PXY,T,Ex,etc)
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Law of Demand
The law of demand states the quantity demanded of a
good/service is inversely related to its price. As price of
a commodity increase its quantity demanded will
decrease and vice versa.
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Movement along and Shift in Demand
Curve
Movement along Demand Curve: occurs as a
result of a change in price of a good/service.
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Movement …
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Supply
Supply is the amount of a good producers/sellers are
willing to produce and sell at different prices.
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Law of Supply
Law of supply states that the quantity supplied of a
good is positively related to its own price, other
things being equal.
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Movement along and Shift in Supply Curve
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Market Equilibrium
Market equilibrium is a point where market
forces of supply and demand are in balance
clearing all excesses on both supply and
demand sides.
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Market Equilibrium Illustrated
Price of Hip Quantity Hip Quantity Hip
Replacement Replacement Replacement
(P) Demanded by the Supplied by the
Population (Qd) Hospital (Qs)
Br.1000
Br. 2000 7000
2500 6000 2000
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Effect of Non-price factors on Supply and
Demand
All changes in other non-price factors result in
shift of the demand and supply curve.
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Effect of Non-price …
Income:
• As disposable income of people increase demand
will also increase holding other things constant.
• As income decrease demand will also decrease.
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• However, with a special kind of goods called
Giffen or inferior Goods this is not always true.
• As income increases people tend to demand
less of the inferior goods as they now move to
“better” goods that are usually more
expensive.
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Effect of Non-price …
Complementary Goods : are goods that
are consumed together.
e.g. car and gasoline
As price of good “X” increases, demand for
good “Y” decreases which means
demand of a good is inversely related to
price of a complementary good.
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Effect of Non-price …
• Substitute Goods: are goods that can replace
the consumption of an other good (e.g.,
electricity and biomass fuel).
• As price of good “X” increases, demand for
good “Y” increases which means demand of a
good is directly related to price of a substitute
good
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Reasons Behind Down-ward Sloping
Demand Curve
The downward sloping of a demand curve is the
result of two effects:
–Substitution effect
–Income effect
Substitution effect occurs because as the price
of a good fall it becomes less expensive
relative to all other goods as a result of which
people now consume more of it and
substituting the good for others.
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Reasons Behind …
Income effect as an other explanation, is the
phenomenon when price of a commodity rise
the buyer real income will be reduced or
becomes poorer as a result he/she will
consume less than before.
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4. Principles of health care demand
• Health care need
• Health care demand
• Health care utilization
• Relationship between need, demand, supply
and utilization
• Demand and quality of services
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Demand
• Demand describes the behavior of consumers. It does
not mean the desire to obtain something (Health
care)
• The hungry man who can not pay for food has no
demand for it
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Demand for health care
• The major purpose of demand analysis for
medical care is to determine those factors
which on the average, most affect a persons
utilization of medical services
Price
P1
P0
q1 q0
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• Price changes lead to movements along D curve 66
Other Economic Factors Affecting
Demand
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Other Economic Factors Affecting
Demand…
1. Income
• If income increases, then at any given price, consumer
is willing and able to purchase more q
Price
DO D1
P0
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Other Economic Factors Affecting
Demand…
2. Complements
• e.g. contact lenses and optometrist visits
• If contact lenses become cheaper, demand for optometrist
visits will increase
Price
Price of complement falls
D0 D1
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Other Economic Factors Affecting
Demand…
Price
Demand for brand name
drug falls
D1 D0
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Equilibrium of supply and demand…
• At the equilibrium, price and quantity tend to stay
same as long as other things remain equal
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Elasticity
Elasticity is a measure of responsiveness or sensitivity of
the dependent variable to the change in the
independent variable.
Different types of elasticity:
– Price elasticity of demand (Єd)
– Price elasticity of supply (Єs)
– Income elasticity of demand (Єy)
– Cross elasticity of demand (Єxy)
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Price elasticity of Demand
Price elasticity of demand (Єd) is sensitivity of the
quantity demanded of a good to the change in
the price of the good.
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Price elasticity …
Єd = % change in quantity demanded (Q)
% change in price (P)
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Elasticity and Total Revenue
Total revenue /Spending is the product of Price and
quantity, i.e., TR = P * Q
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Elasticity
A relatively flat demand curve implies that
Price a small increase in price leads to a large
fall in # visits demanded
In this case demand is considered to be
relatively “elastic” with respect to a
change in price
# Visits
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Elasticity…
Price A relatively steep demand curve
implies that a small increase in price
leads to a small fall in # visits
demanded
In this case demand is considered to
be relatively “inelastic” relative to a
change in price
# Visits
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Elasticity…
Price Elasticity of Demand:
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Elasticity…
• ED is expected to be negative. Thus, price
elasticities of demand are often quoted in
terms of absolute value
11/09/23 85
Health care utilization patterns
• Utilization
• Determinants of health care utilization
11/09/23 86
Health care utilization…
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Health care utilization…
• In Sub-Saharan Africa gaining access to health care
services is still a challenge as health systems
performance is very low
• There exist profound inequities in health within region
• As a result of either geographical, physical, financial or socio-
cultural barriers, the use of effective health services and
interventions is a challenge
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Health care utilization…
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7. Health Sector financing
• Total expenditure in health sectors
• Types of health care financing
– Government
– User charge
– Insurance
– Community
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Health expenditures
• As countries get richer they are more able and
willing to spend public resources on health
care.
11/09/23 91
Health care financing ….Introduction
• Health care is a human right and an essential
component in social and economic
development
11/09/23 92
Introduction …
11/09/23 93
Introduction …
• Financial management comprises two tasks
1) Identification and seeking of financial resources, &
2) Effective utilization of financial resources.
11/09/23 94
Introduction…
• In many of the poorest countries, the level of
spending is still insufficient to ensure
equitable access to basic and essential health
services and interventions.
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Focus of financial management?
11/09/23 97
Types of Health care Financing
• Health financing is raising resources to support the
payment for goods and health services
• Resources raised are:
1. Money/Cash
2. Technical and non technical manpower
3. Materials
• Health finances are :
1. Daily operational/current
2. Long term investment/capital
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Sources of health care financing
• The health services are financed from four
main sources:
1. Government (both federal and regional)
2. Bilateral and multilateral donors (both grants
and loans)
3. Non-governmental organizations, and
4. Private contributions, both from out-of-pocket
payments and through private sector investors
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Government sources of health care financing
• General tax revenue
• Loans
• Lotteries etc
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Community Financing
– Service fee
– Drugs Sales
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Why health insurance?
Positive points
• Enabling people to use health services without
payment
• It generates additional income for the health sector
Negative Points:
• Shifting responsibility by the ministry of health
• The demand for the curative services are enhanced.
• Enhanced pressure on the government to equalize the
health care services.
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Role of User charges
Positive:
• Resource generations and improved quality and services.
Negative:
• Emergency and empty pocket
11/09/23 105
Ensuring equity ?
• Health care financing contributions should be
distributed according to ability-to-pay.
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Problem of health care financing
Common problems globally.
• Lack of funds
• Distribution of resources
• Raising health cost
• Lack of coordination
• Inefficiency in spending
• Wrong and biased and assumed priorities
• Pilferage
• Concern for self than the institution and
community.
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Thank you
11/09/23 108
Measuring Costs/Cost Analysis
Overview
• Definition of cost
• Classification of cost
• Importance of cost data
• Measuring cost
Meaning of cost
• a cost is the value of resources used to
produce a good or services.
• However, the way these resources are
measured can differ.
• There are two main alternatives with respect
to measurement of these resources: financial
and economic costing.
Meaning of cost…
• Financial cost represents actual expenditure on
goods and services purchased.
• Costs are thus described in terms of how much
money has been paid for the resources used in
the project or services.
• In order to ascertain the financial costs of a
project, we need to know the price and quantity
of all the resources used and the level of
expenditure on these goods and services.
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Meaning of cost…
• Economic cost include the estimated value of
goods or services for which there were no
financial transaction or when the price of a
specific good did not reflect the cost of using
its productivity elsewhere.
11/09/23 113
Meaning of cost…
• The theory and the concept of cost arise from the
fact that economic resources are scarce by nature.
• Had it not been for the scarcity of resources, the
concept and theory of cost may not exist as such.
• Scarcity has two sides:
– The infinite nature of human wants
– The finite or limited nature of resources available to
produce goods and services.
11/09/23 114
Why Consider costs?
• Scarcity implies choice between alternatives
• Cost is one factor which enables choice
• Accountability
• Assessing efficiency
• Assessing equity
• Assessing priority
• Making cost projection
11/09/23 115
Types of cost
Achievement
How
of the
Resources resources Intended
Productivity
are used Change
Improved health in
quantity and quality
Outpatient Visits No of patient Mortality
Manpower Diagnostic attendance Disability
Equipment procedures No of discharges Prevalence
Money Inpatient admission No of referrals Satisfaction of
Consultation No of children patients
Pain
episodes immunized Distress
Drugs dispensed restoration
Nature of Comparative Analysis
Costs A Consequences A
Program A
Choice
Consequences B
Program B
Costs B
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Cost-effectiveness Analysis
The most commonly CERs used are the:
Average cost-effectiveness ratio (ACER)
Cost B
ACER=
Effectiveness B
Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER)
Cost B−Cost A
ICER=
Effectiveness B−Effectiveness A
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Cost-benefit Analysis (CBA)
• An economic evaluation in which all costs and
consequences of a program are expressed in the same
units, usually money.
• CBA is used to determine allocative efficiency; i.e.,
comparison of costs and benefits across programs
serving different patient groups.
• NB. Even if some items of resource or benefit cannot be
measured in the common unit of account; i.e., money,
they should not be excluded from the analysis.
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Cost-benefit Analysis
CBA try to value the outcomes in monetary terms, so as to
make them commensurate with the costs.
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Summary
Net
Net cost
cost
Cost
Cost Benefit
Benefit Money
Money valued
valued in
in money.
money. cost:
cost: benefit
benefit ratio.
ratio.
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