GROUP 4

PROPERTIES
OF
ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
MEMBERS
Electrical Properties
Reporter: John Jaylord Bautista
WHY STUDY the Electrical Properties of Materials?
WHY STUDY the Electrical Properties of Materials?

Consideration of the electrical properties of materials is often

important when materials selection and processing decisions
are being made during the design of a component or structure.
For example, when we consider an integrated circuit package,
the electrical behaviors of the various materials are diverse.
Some need to be highly electrically conductive (e.g., connecting
wires), whereas electrical insulativity is required of others (e.g.,
the protective package encapsulation).
The electrical properties of materials are as follows:
The electrical properties of materials are as follows:

o The electrical properties of semiconductors (e.g., silicon) are dependent on their electron
band structures namely, electron energy states that are occupied by electrons that are
available to participate in the conduction process. In this chapter we introduce the concept of
electrical conduction for semiconductors from the perspective of their band structures.
The electrical properties of materials are as follows:

o The electrical properties of semiconductors (e.g., silicon) are dependent on their electron
band structures namely, electron energy states that are occupied by electrons that are
available to participate in the conduction process. In this chapter we introduce the concept of
electrical conduction for semiconductors from the perspective of their band structures.

o We also discuss how the addition of atoms of specific elements in minute

concentrations affects the band structure, and, in turn, the electrical characteristics of
a semiconductor.
The electrical properties of materials are as follows:

o The electrical properties of semiconductors (e.g., silicon) are dependent on their electron
band structures namely, electron energy states that are occupied by electrons that are
available to participate in the conduction process. In this chapter we introduce the concept of
electrical conduction for semiconductors from the perspective of their band structures.

o We also discuss how the addition of atoms of specific elements in minute

concentrations affects the band structure, and, in turn, the electrical characteristics of
a semiconductor.

o The electrical characteristics and mechanics of operation of two different

semiconducting devices that are employed in integrated circuits are also described
and explained.
OHM’S LAW
OHM’S LAW
OHM’S LAW

One of the most important electrical characteristics of a

solid material is the ease with which it transmits an electric
current. Ohm’s law relates the current I or time rate of
charge passage—to the applied voltage V as follows:
ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
Sometimes, electrical conductivity is used
to specify the electrical character of a
material. It is simply the reciprocal of the
resistivity, or and is indicative of the ease with
which a material is capable of conducting an
electric current. The units for σ are reciprocal
ohm-meters.
ELECTRONIC AND IONIC CONDUCTION

An electric current is caused by the motion of

electrically charged particles in response to an
externally applied electric field. Positively charged
particles are accelerated in the field direction,
negatively charged particles in the opposite direction.
In most solid materials, a current arises from the flow
of electrons, while in ionic materials a net motion of
charged ions is possible, known as ionic conduction.
CONDUCTION IN TERMS OF BAND
AND ATOMIC BONDING MODELS

At this point in the discussion, it is vital that another

concept be understood namely, that only electrons
with energies greater than the Fermi energy may be
acted on and accelerated in the presence of an
electric field. These are the electrons that participate
in the conduction process, which are termed free
electrons.
 CONDUCTION IN TERMS OF BAND
AND ATOMIC BONDING MODELS

Figure 1. For a metal, occupancy of electron states (a) before and (b) after an electron excitation.
 CONDUCTION IN TERMS OF BAND
AND ATOMIC BONDING MODELS

Figure 1. For a metal, occupancy of electron states (a) before and (b) after an electron excitation.

Another charged electronic entity called a hole is found in

semiconductors and insulators. Holes have energies less than Ef and
also participate in electronic conduction.
For an electron to become free, it must be excited or promoted
into one of the empty and available energy states above Ef.
INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

For insulators and semiconductors, empty states

adjacent to the top of the filled valence band are not
available. To become free, therefore, electrons must be
promoted across the energy band gap and into empty states
at the bottom of the conduction band.
This is possible only by supplying to an electron the
difference in energy between these two states, which is
approximately equal to the band gap energy Eg.
INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

Figure 18.6 For an insulator or semiconductor, occupancy of electron

states (a) before and (b) after an electron excitation from the valence band
into the conduction band, in which both a free electron and a hole are
generated.
 ELECTRON MOBILITY

When an electric field is applied, a force is brought to

bear on the free electrons; as a consequence, they all
experience acceleration in a direction opposite to that of the
field, by virtue of their negative charge. According to
quantum mechanics, there is no interaction between an
accelerating electron and atoms in a perfect crystal lattice.
ELECTRON MOBILITY

Figure 18.7 Schematic diagram showing the path of an

electron that is deflected by scattering events.
 ELECTRON MOBILITY

Figure 18.7 Schematic diagram showing the path of an

electron that is deflected by scattering events.
 ELECTRON MOBILITY

Figure 18.7 Schematic diagram showing the path of an

electron that is deflected by scattering events.

Friction forces in the crystal lattice cause electrons to

accelerate as long as the electric field is applied,
resulting in an electric current that increases with time.
These forces are caused by impurity atoms, vacancies,
interstitial atoms, dislocations, and even the thermal
vibrations of the atoms themselves.
 ELECTRON MOBILITY

Figure 18.7 Schematic diagram showing the path of an

electron that is deflected by scattering events.

The scattering phenomenon is

manifested as a resistance to the passage
of an electric current. Several parameters
are used to describe the extent of this
scattering; these include the drift velocity
and the mobility of an electron.
SEMICONDUCTIVITY
SEMICONDUCTIVITY

Semiconducting materials have unique electrical

characteristics that make them especially useful.
Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which the
electrical behavior is based on the electronic
structure inherent in the pure material, while extrinsic
are those where the electrical characteristics are
dictated by impurity atoms.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTION

• N-type
• P-type
 N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

N-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor

with an electron donor element during manufacture. The term n-type
comes from the negative charge of the electron. In n-type semiconductors,
electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers. A
common dopant for n-type silicon is phosphorus or arsenic. In an n-type
semiconductor, the Fermi level is greater than that of the intrinsic
semiconductor and lies closer to the conduction band than the valence
band.
Examples: phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, etc.
 P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

P-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor

with an electron acceptor element during manufacture. The term p-type
refers to the positive charge of a hole. As opposed to n-type
semiconductors, p-type semiconductors have a larger hole concentration
than electron concentration. In p-type semiconductors, holes are the
majority carriers and electrons are the minority carriers. A common p-type
dopant for silicon is boron or gallium. For p-type semiconductors the Fermi
level is below the intrinsic semiconductor and lies closer to the valence
band than the conduction band.
Examples: boron, aluminum, gallium, etc.
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

The unique electrical properties of semiconductors

allow them to be used in devices to perform specific
electronic functions, such as diodes and transistors.
Advantages of semiconductor devices include small
size, low power consumption, and no warm-up time.
This has led to the invention of miniaturized circuitry,
which has led to the rapid growth of new industries.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF
POLYMERS
Most polymeric materials are poor conductors
of electricity because of the unavailability of
large numbers of free electrons to participate in
the conduction process. The mechanism of
electrical conduction in these materials is not
well understood, but it is felt that conduction in
polymers of high purity is electronic
TYPES OF POLARIZATION
Polarization is the alignment of permanent or induced
atomic or molecular dipole moments with an externally
applied electric field. There are three types or sources of
polarization: electronic, ionic, and orientation. Dielectric
materials ordinarily exhibit at least one of these
polarization types depending on the material and also
the manner of the external field application.
Electronic
Polarization
Electronic
Polarization

Electronic polarization may be induced to one degree or

another in all atoms. It results from a displacement of
the center of the negatively charged electron cloud
relative to the positive nucleus of an atom by the electric
field. This polarization type is found in all dielectric
materials and, of course, exists only while an electric
field is present.
 Electronic
Polarization

Fig. (a) Electronic polarization that results from the distortion of an atomic
electron cloud by an electric field.
Ionic
Polarization

Ionic polarization occurs only in materials

that are ionic. An applied field acts to
displace cations in one direction and anions
in the opposite direction, which gives rise to
a net dipole moment.
Ionic
Polarization

(b) Ionic polarization that results from the relative displacements of

electrically charged ions in response to an electric field.
Orientation
Polarization

The third type, orientation polarization, is

found only in substances that possess
permanent dipole moments. Polarization
results from a rotation of the permanent
moments into the direction of the applied
field.
Orientation
Polarization

(c) Response of permanent electric dipoles (arrows) to an applied electric field,

producing orientation polarization.
 Thermal Properties
Reporter: Mervin B. Gautane

Reporter: Tricia Joy Soquena

 Thermal Properties
Thermal properties are those properties of a
material which is related to its conductivity of heat.
In other words, these are the properties that are
exhibited by a material when the heat is passed
through it. Thermal property refers to the response
of a material to the application of heat.
Thermal Properties
Different types of thermal properties of substances
are listed below:

1. Heat Capacity
2. Thermal Expansion
3. Thermal Conductivity
4. Thermal Stress
5. Thermal Diffusivity
6. Thermal Effusivity
 1. Heat Capacity
Heat capacity is expressed as the thermal property of an
element which indicates the capability to retain heat from the
external surrounding. In the standard international system, the
heat capacity is estimated in the units of joule per kelvin. The
heat capacity of a material does rely on its mass. The formula
of heat capacity can be addressed as:

• The amount of heat required necessary to increase the

temperature by 1 degree, (1 Kor 1 C). So a solid material is
heated. It experience an increase in temperature, signifying
that some energy has been absorbed. Heat capacity
represents the quantity of heat required to produce a unit
rise. So one degree or one kelvin in temperature for one
Note: If the material exceed to its heat
mole of a substance.
capacity, the material will melt.
Vibrational Heat Capacity
 2. Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion is the thermal property that emerges
because of the presence of heat energy in the subatomic
particles as the temperature rises. When the temperature of
atoms rises, the kinetic energy also rises, leading to an increase
in the distances between molecules. Hence, the material
expands. Generally, there are three types of thermal expansion,
which are listed below:
 2. Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion is the thermal property that emerges because
of the presence of heat energy in the subatomic particles as the temperature
rises. When the temperature of atoms rises, the kinetic energy also rises,
leading to an increase in the distances between molecules. Hence, the
material expands. Generally, there are three types of thermal expansion,
which are listed below:
1. Linear expansion
2. Area expansion
3. Volumetric expansion
 2. Thermal Expansion
Below listed are two coefficients of thermal expansion:

1.Coefficient of thermal expansion

2.Coefficient of volume expansion
 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

The relation of coefficient of thermal expansion can be written as:

∆𝐿
𝛼=
𝐿0 ∆ 𝑇
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

The linear expansion coefficient indicates the

correlation between the alteration in the
dimension of a substance per unit length. In the
standard international system, it is represented in
terms of inverse degree Celsius.
 Coefficient of Volume Expansion

The relation of coefficient of volume expansion can be written as:

∆𝑉
𝛼 𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
𝑉0∆𝑇
 Coefficient of Volume Expansion

The volume expansion coefficient signifies the difference in the

volume of the material along with its temperature. The dilatometer is a
device that is extensively employed to estimate the coefficient of
thermal expansion. If a certain substance has a high melting point,
then its thermal expansion coefficient will be less.
 3. Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is described as
the capability of transferring heat from
substances having more temperature
to substances having less ∆𝑇
𝑄=𝑘𝐴
temperature. The two methods used
for transmitting heat energy are the ∆𝐿
electronic contribution and phonon
contribution. The relation of thermal
conductivity can be written as:
3. Thermal Conductivity

The schematic diagram

represents the thermal
conductivity through a solid.
 3. Thermal Conductivity
The quantities on which thermal conductivity relies are as
follows:

1. Temperature
2. Moisture
3. Density of substance
4. Path length of heat
5. Characteristics of substance
4. THERMAL STRESSES

Thermal stresses are stresses induced

in a body as a result of changes in
temperature. An understanding of the
origins and nature of thermal stresses
is important because these stresses can
lead to fracture or undesirable plastic
deformation.
4. THERMAL STRESSES
Thermal stresses are generated
on any specific body because of
the difference in a temperature
gradient. When the temperature
is higher, the nature of the body
will be compressive, whereas,
at low temperature, its nature is
tensile. In order to estimate the
thermal stress, the stress
calculation theory is applied.
4. THERMAL STRESSES
The formula of thermal stress is given by:

𝑌 𝛼 ∆𝑇
𝜎=
𝐿
Here, is the thermal stress, is the young's modulus, is
the initial length, and is the change in temperature.
Example of Thermal stress

The gap between the inner and outer end of

the rail track is an excellent example of a rail
track. The two steel rods we use as rails on
which the train passes. These steel rods are in
touch with outer and inner ends. The extent of
thermal stress produced due to temperature
and friction can easily bend these rods.
Effects of Thermal Stress

Thermal stresses can have a significant

effect on the structural strength and stability
if we do not consider it correctly. The
potential to creak cracks and breaks in
various regions of major weakness often
occurs due to negligence in understanding
Thermal stress.
Effects of Thermal Stress
One of the most common examples of
thermal stress is the fracturing of glass that
occurs when we heat the glass to a high
temperature and immediately dip into cold
water. The crack and fracture in the glass
are different than the one that occurs as a
result of the impact.
Causes of Thermal Stress

According to the laws of Thermodynamics,

Thermal Stress is a mechanical process that occurs
due to the change in the internal temperature of an
object. Under normal conditions, any rise in
temperature causes additional stress. However,
sometimes in addition to stress, thermal shock can
also occur which causes the sudden fracture or
cracking of an object.
5. Thermal Diffusivity

Thermal diffusivity is represented as the quantity which

explains the amount of heat spread by an object. The
measurement unit of thermal diffusivity is meter square
per second. It can also be utilized to measure the time
consumed in altering the temperature of the object during
heating or cooling. The quantities which affect the thermal
diffusivity are:
5. Thermal Diffusivity

 Thermal conductivity
 Density
 Heat capacity
The key difference between thermal conductivity and
diffusivity is that thermal conductivity refers to the ability
of a material to conduct heat whereas thermal diffusivity
refers to the measurement of the rate of transfer of heat of
a material from its hot end to the cold end.
For example the aluminum and wood. The thermal
diffusivity of the aluminum is higher than the wood. The
aluminum will responds rapidly to the thermal changes in
the environment.
6. Thermal Effusivity
When a particular body comes in contact with another
body, there is some exchange of heat among them, which
is estimated by thermal effusivity. Thermal effusivity has
an essential part in thermal shock as well as thermal
fatigue, and in heat conduction, it does affect the thermal
strain or stress. One of the applications of thermal
effusivity is to determine the warmness or coolness of
fabric substances.
 Thermal effusivity is used to describe heat
transition behavior of two objects, when the two
objects are in contact to each other. When the two
materials have the same thermal effusivity, the heat
transition behavior will equal to a unique object as if
there are no junction between the two objects.
• It is the ability of a material to measure the exchange
of thermal energy with its surroundings.
• Application: Dash of a car, and Design of clothes
• So the difference between conductivity, diffusivity, and
effusivity is that the conductivity is the ability of a
material to conduct heat, the diffusivity is the
measurement of the rate of transfer of heat, and the
effusivity is that the ability of a material to measure
the exchange of thermal energy with its surroundings.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Reporter: Grezy J. Magno

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Magnetism is a long-known phenomena in

which materials exert an attracting or repulsive force
or influence on other materials. The underlying
principles and mechanisms that explain the magnetic
phenomenon, on the other hand, are complex and
delicate, and their comprehension has escaped
scientists until recently. Magnetism and magnetic
materials are used in many modern technical
gadgets, including electrical power generators and
transformers, electric motors, radios, televisions,
telephones, computers, and components of sound
and video reproduction systems.
BASIC CONCEPTS
Magnetic dipoles

A magnetic dipole is a fundamental concept in physics that describes a

type of magnetic field produced by a pair of equal and opposite magnetic
charges or poles. These poles are analogous to the positive and negative
charges of an electric dipole, but instead of electric charges, magnetic dipoles
involve magnetic moments.

An example of a magnetic dipole is a bar magnet, which has north and

south poles that produce a magnetic field around them. The strength of the
magnetic field produced by a magnetic dipole depends on the distance from the
poles.
Magnetic Field Vectors

Magnetic field vectors can be visualized as arrows

pointing in the direction of the magnetic field at each
point in space. The length of the arrow represents the
strength of the magnetic field, while the direction of the
arrow represents the direction of the magnetic field.
Magnetic Field Strength - externally applied magnetic field.

Magnetic Induction – or magnetic flux density, denoted as B,

represents the magnitude of the internal field strength within a
substance that is subjected to a field.
 Figure: The magnetic moment as
designated by an arrow.
 Permeability - µ, the property of the specific
medium through which H field passes and in
which B is measured.

Magnetization - Another field of and H

field , is defined by the expression;
TABLE : Magnetic Units and Conversion
Factors for the SI and cgs-emu systems.
DIAMAGNETISM
AND
PARAMAGNETISM
Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism that is
nonpermanent and persists only while an external field is
being applied. It is induced by a change in the orbital
motion of electrons due to an applied magnetic field. The
magnitude of the induced magnetic moment is extremely
small, and in a direction opposite to that of the applied field.
 For some solid materials, each atom possesses a
permanent dipole moment by virtue of incomplete
cancellation of electron spin and/or orbital magnetic
moments. In the absence of an external magnetic field, the
orientations of these atomic magnetic moments are random,
such that a piece of material possesses no net macroscopic
magnetization. These atomic dipoles are free to rotate, and
paramagnetism results when they preferentially align, by
rotation.
Figure: (a) The atomic dipole configuration for a
diamagnetic material with and without a magnetic field. In
the absence of an external field, no dipoles exist; in the
presence of a field, dipoles are induced that are aligned
opposite to the field direction. (b) Atomic dipole
configuration with and without an external magnetic field
for a paramagnetic material.
FERROMAGNET
ISM
 Certain metallic materials possess a permanent magnetic moment in the
absence of an external field, and manifest very large and permanent magnetizations.
These are the characteristics of ferromagnetism, and they are displayed by the
transition metals iron (as BCC -ferrite), cobalt, nickel, and some of the rare earth
metals such as gadolinium (Gd). Magnetic susceptibilities as high as 106 are
possible for ferromagnetic materials.

Permanent magnetic moments in ferromagnetic materials result from

atomic magnetic moments due to un cancelled electron spins as a
consequence of the electron structure. There is also an orbital magnetic
moment contribution that is small in comparison to the spin moment.
Furthermore, in a ferromagnetic material, coupling interactions cause net
spin magnetic moments of adjacent atoms to align with one another,
even in the absence of an external field.
 Figure: Schematic illustration of the
mutual alignment of atomic dipoles for
a ferromagnetic material, which will exist
even in the absence of an external
magnetic field.

Figure : Schematic representation of

antiparallel alignment of spin magnetic
moments for antiferromagnetic manganese
oxide
ANTIFERROMAGNETISM AND
FERRIMAGNETISM
Antiferromagnetism

This phenomenon of magnetic moment coupling between

adjacent atoms or ions occurs in materials other than those that
are ferromagnetic. In one such group, this coupling results in an
antiparallel alignment; the alignment of the spin moments of
neighboring atoms or ions in exactly opposite directions is
termed antiferromagnetism.
Ferrimagnetism

Some ceramics also exhibit a permanent magnetization, termed

ferrimagnetism. The macroscopic magnetic characteristics of
ferromagnets and ferrimagnets are similar; the distinction lies in the
source of the net magnetic moments. The principles of ferrimagnetism
are illustrated with the cubic ferrites.2 These ionic materials may be
represented by the chemical formula MFe2O4, in which M represents any
one of several metallic elements. The prototype ferrite is Fe3O4, the
mineral magnetite, sometimes called lodestone.
Figure : Schematic diagram showing the spin
magnetic moment configuration for Fe2 and
Fe3 ions in Fe3O4. (From Richard A. Flinn and
Paul K. Trojan, Engineering Materials and
Their Applications, 4th edition. Copyright ©
1990 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Adapted by
permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
 THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR
Temperature can also influence the magnetic characteristics of materials. Recall that
raising the temperature of a solid results in an increase in the magnitude of the thermal
vibrations of atoms. The atomic magnetic moments are free to rotate; hence, with rising
temperature, the increased thermal motion of the atoms tends to randomize the directions of
any moments that may be aligned. For ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, and ferrimagnetic
materials, the atomic thermal motions counteract the coupling forces between the adjacent
atomic dipole moments, causing some dipole misalignment, regardless of whether an external
field is present. This results in a decrease in the saturation magnetization for both ferro and
ferrimagnets.
Figure: Plot of saturation
magnetization as a function of
temperature for iron and Fe3O4.
[Adapted from J. Smit and H. P.
J. Wijn, Ferrites. Copyright ©
1959 by N. V. Philips
Gloeilampenfabrieken,
Eindhoven (Holland). Reprinted
by permission.]
DOMAINS AND HYSTERESIS
In magnetism, a domain is a region in a magnetic material
where the magnetic moments of the atoms are aligned in the
same direction. In other words, a domain is a small region
within a magnetic material where the magnetic field produced
by the individual atoms is aligned in the same direction. The
size of the domains can vary from a few nanometers to
several micrometers depending on the material and its
properties.
Figure : Schematic depiction of
domains in a ferromagnetic or
ferrimagnetic material; arrows
represent atomic magnetic dipoles.
Within each domain, all dipoles are
aligned, whereas the direction of
alignment varies from one domain to
another
Figure : A hysteresis curve at
less than saturation (curve NP)
within the saturation loop for a
ferromagnetic material. The B–
H behavior for field reversal at
other than saturation is
indicated by curve LM.
SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS
The size and shape of the hysteresis curve for
ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic materials is of considerable
practical importance. The area within a loop represents a
magnetic energy loss per unit volume of material per
magnetization–demagnetization cycle; this energy loss is
manifested as heat that is generated within the magnetic
specimen and is capable of raising its temperature.
Figure : Schematic magnetization
curves for soft and hard magnetic
materials. (From K. M. Ralls, T. H.
Courtney, and J. Wulff, Introduction
to Materials Science and
Engineering. Copyright © 1976 by
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Reprinted by permission of John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Hard magnetic materials are used in permanent magnets, which
must have a high resistance to demagnetization. In terms of hysteresis
behavior, a hard magnetic material has a high remanence, coercivity,
and saturation flux density, as well as a low initial permeability and high
hysteresis energy losses. The hysteresis characteristics for hard and
soft magnetic materials are compared in Figure 20.19. The two most
important characteristics relative to applications for these materials are
the coercivity and what is termed the energy product, designated as
(BH)max.
Figure: Schematic magnetization
curve that displays hysteresis. Within
the second quadrant are drawn two B–
H energy product rectangles; the area
of the rectangle labeled (BH)max is
the largest possible, which is greater
than the area defined by Bd–Hd.
 MAGNETIC STORAGE

Magnetic materials are important in the area of information storage; in fact, magnetic recording has
become virtually the universal technology for the storage of electronic information. This is evidenced by the
preponderance of disk storage media [e.g., computers (both desktop and laptop), iPods and MP3 players,
and high-definition camcorder hard drives], credit/debit cards (mag stripes), and so on. Whereas in
computers, semiconductor elements serve as primary memory, magnetic hard disks are normally used for
secondary memory because they are capable of storing larger quantities of information and at a lower cost;
however, their transfer rates are slower. Furthermore, the recording and television industries rely heavily on
magnetic tapes for the storage and reproduction of audio and video sequences. In addition, tapes are used
with large computer systems to back up and archive data.
Figure : Schematic diagram of a hard disk drive that employs
the perpendicular magnetic recording medium; also shown
are inductive write and magnetoresistive-read heads.
 Hard Disk Drives

Hard disk drives (HDDs) are a type of data storage

device that use magnetic recording to store and retrieve
digital information. HDDs consist of one or more rotating
disks (platters) coated with a magnetic material, and a
read/write head that moves over the surface of the disk to
read and write data.
 Magnetic Tapes

The development of magnetic tape storage preceded that for the

hard disk drives. Today, tape storage is less expensive than HDD;
however, areal storage densities are lower for tape (by a factor of on the
order of 100). Tapes [of standard 0.5-in. (12.7- mm) width] are wound
onto reels and enclosed within cartridges, for protection and to facilitate
handling. During operation, a tape drive, using precision-synchronized
motors, winds the tape from one reel onto another past a read/write
head system in order to access a point of interest.
Figure: Scanning electron micrographs showing particulate media used in tape
memory storage. (a) Needle-shaped ferromagnetic metal particles. (b) Plate-shaped
ferrimagnetic barium-ferrite particles. Magnifications unknown. (Photographs courtesy
of Fujifilm, Inc., Recording Media Division.)
Figure : Temperature dependence of the
electrical resistivity for normally conducting
and superconducting materials in the vicinity of
0 K.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
 OPTICAL PROPERTIES
Definition

The term optical property describes a material's behavior when electromagnetic radiation (light) is
incident on the material's surface or, in other words, how a material interacts under an incident
electromagnetic radiation. Different types of material show different optical properties due to
differences in physical, chemical, and mechanical characteristics.
The knowledge of optical properties is very important in various industrial as well as in scientific
applications. In the selection of material for the purpose of contactless temperature measurement
devices, heat transfer methods, laser technology, etc., complete knowledge of optical properties of
materials is necessary for efficient operation.
 OPTICAL PROPERTIES
Optical Properties of Non-Metals:
• These materials may be transparent, translucent, or opaque.
Therefore, they exhibit different optical properties such as
reflection, refraction, absorption and transmission. The
phenomenon of refraction is more dominant in them.
• The non-metals which are transparent are generally coloured
due to light absorption and remission in the visible region by
them. Absorption of light occurs due to: Electronic
polarization.
• The total absorption of light by the metal surface is within
• Excitation of electrons from filled valence band to empty
state within conduction band, and Wide band gaps in
dielectric materials.
• iThe non-metallic transparent materials transmit light
due to net energy formed by absorption and reflection
processes.
Optical Properties of Metals:
• In metals, the valence band is partially filled and so there
are large number of quasi continuous vacant energy levels
available within the valence band. When light is incident
on metals the valence electrons absorb all frequencies of
visible light and get excited to vacant states inside the
valence band (intra-band transitions). This result in the
opacity of metals.
a very thin outer layer of less than 0.1 jam. The excited
electrons return back to lower energy states thereby
causing emission of radiation from the surface of the metal
in the form of visible light of the same wavelength. This
emitted light which appears as the reflected light is the
cause of the lustrous appearance of metals.
Optical Properties of
Semiconductors:

- Intrinsic semiconductors at low temperatures have a

completely filled valence band and an empty
conduction band. So, no intra-band transitions can
- The energy gaps in semiconductors are in the range of
occur in semiconductors.
0.5 – 3eV. So inter-band absorption occurs for radiation
in this range which corresponds to near infra-red and
- Radiation of low frequencies, i.e. infrared radiation visible range, this is responsible for the opacity of
are not absorbed and that’s why semiconductors are semiconductors.
transparent to infra-red radiation.
Visibility Range of Light Spectrum:

i. Semiconductors infrared region-InSb, Ge, Si, GaAs.

ii. Semiconductors lying in visible region- CdSe (red

visibility) GaP (yellow visibility).

iii. Semiconductors lying in ultraviolet region- CdS

(green visibility), SiC (blue visibility) ZnS.
Luminescence:
DEFINITION

Luminescence is the property by which a material emits the light.

In semiconducting materials, the light is emitted

under certain conditions which are as below:

• (i) When electron-hole pairs (EHP) are generated, or

• (ii) When the carriers fall to their equilibrium state after being excited to higher impurity levels.
Different
Types of
Luminescence:
1. Photo-Luminescence:

It is the phenomenon of emission of light from a semiconductor on account

of recombination of excited electron-hole pair (EHP).
Here one photon is emitted from each photon absorbed. Recombination in
semiconductors takes place at varying rates; fast and slow.
Accordingly, the photo-luminescence may be of following two
types:
a. Fluorescence:

It is a fast process property of material in which the emission of photon

stops in about 10–8s after the excitation is removed.
Example:
(i) Glass surface coated with tungstates or silicates such as in fluorescent
lamps.
(ii) Television screen coated with sulphides, oxides, tungstates etc.
Accordingly, the photo-luminescence may be of following two
types:
b. Phosphorescence:

Slow process property of material in which the emission of photon

continues for a longer duration, lasting for seconds and minutes after
removal of excitation.

Materials falling in this category are termed as

phosphors, example:
a. ZnS coated with Cu an impurity
b. CdS coated with Ag as impurity
c. KCI coated with Tl as impurity
d. Nal coated with Tl as impurity
2. Electro-Luminescence:
This effect can be created by introducing the
electric current into a semiconductor. The
electrical current can be used in different ways to
generate the photon emission from
semiconductors. One such way is ‘injection’.
The name of the process is injection electro-
luminescence which is use in making light-
emitting diodes (LEDs).
In them the minority carriers are injected by
electric current, into the regions of a crystal
where they can recombine with majority carriers.
It results in emission of recombination radiation.
The effect of electro-luminescence can be found
in devices incorporating the phosphor powder
(such as of ZnS) in a plastic binder.
This phosphor gives-off the light when an
alternating current (a.c.) filed is applied on it.
Such device is known as ‘electro-luminescence
cell’, which is used as lighting panel.
Destriau effect- The emission of photons in
certain phosphors occurs when they are
subjected to alternating electric field, was
observed for the first time by Destriau. Hence
this phenomenon is known as ‘Destriau effect’.
 Optical Properties of Insulators:
• i. Insulators have completely filled valence
band and so like as in semiconductors, no intra-
band transitions can occur.
• ii. The energy gap in insulators are greater than
5 eV and so no inter-band transition can occur
in the visible range of radiation.
• iii. Absorption occurs only for the ultraviolent
radiation. Insulators are transparent from infra-
red up to the ultra-violet radiation.
 Optical Properties of Insulators:
• iv. Above materials are opaque because the incident radiation
gets scattered in all direction by the small particles present in
these materials.
• v. Due to this, there cannot be perfect transmission. Part of
the radiation is diffusely transmitted, and part is diffusely
reflected. This makes the materials appear opaque.
• vi. If the particle size is of the order of the wavelength of
visible radiation, there will be maximum scattering.
• vii. For some applications, such particles are deliberately
introduced in dielectrics to make them opaque.
Optical Absorption in Ionic Crystals:

i. Ionic crystals are insulators. The energy gap in these

crystal are in the range of 5-8 eV. The electrons cannot
absorb photons in the visible radiation and get excited to
the conduction band. So the complete range of visible
radiation is transmitted by ionic crystals and they are
transparent.
ii. The absorption properties of ionic crystals change
drastically if point defects such as lattice vacancy or
Schottky defects are present in them. Because of this
defect materials are found to be colored.
iii. Another method by which the optical absorption in ionic
crystals can be changed is by adding impurities.
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