Child and Adult 1

Child and Adolescent
Learner and Learning

Principles
I. BASIC CONCEPTS
IN
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
A. Definition
1. Growth – refers to the increase in size and number;
has a quantitative measure; involves the increase in
size and number.
2. Development – refers to an improvement in
circumstances; has a qualitative measure;
encompasses overall changes, including growth and
other progressive changes.
Development is the relatively orderly adaptive changes
that people go through from conception to death.
3. Child Development – refers to how a child becomes
able to do more complex things as he/she gets older;
examines how human beings change from the time of
conception, throughout infancy and childhood into
adolescence.
B. Domains of Development
1. Biological (or physical) Development
– involves the growth and change in a
person’s body and body functions.
2. Cognitive (or mental) Development –
refers to the growth and change of a
person’s ability to process information,
solve problems and gain knowledge.
3. Socio-emotional (or psychosocial)
Development – involves the growth and
change of our interactions with others
and our feelings.
I. BASIC CONCEPTS IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
The three developmental domains overlap.
Socio-
Cognitive emotional
Biological
C. Basic Principles of Development
and Learning
1. Development is continuous.
2. Development is gradual.
3. Development is sequential.
CEPHALOCAUDAL DEVELOPMENT-
refers to growth and development that
occurs from head down.
PROXIMODISTAL DEVELOPMENT –
occurs from the center or core of the
body proceeds in an outward direction.
and Learning
4. The rate of development varies person
to person.
5. Development proceeds from general
to specific, simple to complex.
6. Early experiences have profound
effects on development
7. Growth and development are a
product of both heredity and
environment.
and Learning
8. Development is predictable.
9. There is a constant
interaction among all
dimensions and factors of
development.
10. Children learn in a variety of
ways.
D. Factors Influencing Growth and
Development
1. Genetics/Heredity
2. Temperament
3. Environment
4. Nutrition
E. The Eight Stages of Human
Development
Developmental Period/Stage –
time frame in a person’s life that
is characterized by certain
features.
Lifespan Development – looking
at development across a person’s
entire lifespan.
Development
1. Pre-natal Period (Conception – birth (9 months))
- tremendous growth
a. Germinal Phase – first 2 weeks
b. Embryonic Phase – 2 weeks to 2 months
c. Fetal Phase – 2 months to birth
2. Infancy (birth to 18-24 months)
- dependence upon adults
- development of many psychological activities.
a. Babyhood – 0 to 1 year
b. Toddlerhood – 1 to 2 years
Development
3. Early Childhood (End of infancy to 5-6
years)
- pre-school years
-self-sufficiency and increased play
4. Middle and Late Childhood (6-11 years)
- Reading, writing and arithmetic
- Focus on achievement and self-control
a. Preadolescence – from 10 to 12, 13 or
14 years.
Development
5. Adolescence (varying endpoints; from
10-12 to 18-22 years)
- Rapid physical changes
- Pursuit of independence and
identity
6. Early Adulthood (late teens to 40)
- Personal and economic
independence
- Selecting a mate/partner
Development
7. Middle Adulthood (41-60 years)
- Social involvement and
responsibility
- Assisting the next generation
8. Late Adulthood (61-79 year to death)
- Life review
- Adjustment to new social roles
- Longest developmental span
F. Developmental Tasks and Milestones
Developmental Task – introduced by

Robert Havighurst in 1948; it is a task
that arises at or about a certain period of
life.
Developmental Milestones – are set of
behaviors, skills or abilities that are
demonstrated by specific ages during
infancy and early childhood in typical
development.
 Gross motor – using large

group of muscles.
 Fine motor – using hands.
 Language – speaking.
 Social – interacting with
others.
G. Developmental Issues
1. Nature vs. Nurture: the extent to
which development is influenced by
biological inheritance and/or
environmental experiences.
Nature: influences of biology and
genetics on behaviour.
Nurture: environmental, social and
cultural influences on behaviour.
2. Stability vs. Change: the degree to
which early traits and characteristics
persist or change through life.
Stability: traits and characteristics are
seen as the result of heredity and early
life experiences.
Change: traits and characteristics can
be altered by later experiences.
3. Continuity vs. Discontinuity:
focuses on whether development is
either …
Continuous: development is a
progressive and cumulative process,
gradually improving on existing skills.
Discontinuous: development takes
place in unique stages and occurs at
specific time or ages.
II. DEVELOPMENTAL
THEORIES
A. Psychoanalytic Theories
(Sigmund Freud)
Psychodynamic Theory
The 3 levels of the mind:
1. Conscious – thoughts, feelings and
perceptions that are directly and currently
available to us.
2. Pre-conscious – facts which are not conscious
but are available for possible use in the future
and are stored in a part of the brain.
3. Unconscious – contains all the feelings, urges
or instincts that are beyond our awareness but
affect our expression, feeling or actions.
(Sigmund Freud)
The 3 components/parts of the mind:
1. Id: unconscious and the source of
primitive instincts, impulses and drives.
2. Ego: contains conscious and memory; is
involved with control, planning and
conforming.
3. Superego: acts as a conscience to the
ego, developing moral standards and
rules through contact with parents and
society.
(Sigmund Freud)
(Sigmund Freud)
Freudian terms:
Erogenous Zone: an area of the body
sensitive to stimulation; pleasure
centers; mouth, anus and genital.
Fixation: getting “stuck” in a particular
stage; result of getting either over or
under gratification of an erogenous
zone.
(Sigmund Freud)
2 Types of Oral Fixation
Oral Receptive – excessive
smoking, drinking alcohol and
overeating.
Oral Aggressive – biting nails
or pens, cursing, gossiping,
overly demanding.
(Sigmund Freud)
2 Types of Anal Fixation
Anal Retentive – overly
neat, stingy and rigid.
Anal Repulsive – very
messy and disorganized.
(Sigmund Freud)
Complexes during Phallic stage
Oedipus complex: a boy’s feelings of desire for
his mother, and jealousy and anger towards hi
father.
Castration anxiety – a boy’s fear of loss/damage
to his penis due to his father’s revenge.
Electra complex: a girl’s feelings of desire for
her father, and jealousy and anger toward her
mother.
Penis envy – a girl’s anxiety upon realization that
she does not have a penis.
B. Psychosocial Development Theory
(Erik Erikson)
 Influenced by Freud, but shifter
ideas from a sexual focus to social
focus.
 Looks at the formation of personal
identity.
Crisis Resolution: if a crisis is not
resolved in an earlier stage, a child is
more likely to encounter problems
with resolutions of later crisis.
STAGE 1
Trust vs. Mistrust
(Infancy – 1 year and 6
mos.)
Psychosocial Crisis
- The goal is to develop trust
without completely eliminating
the capacity of mistrust.
Maladaptation/Malignancy
SENSORY MALADJUSTMENT – overly
trusting, even gullible, this person cannot
believe anyone would mean them harm, and
will use all defences in their command to find
an explanation or excuse for the person who
did him wrong.
Virtue
- If the proper balance, the
child will develop the virtue
of HOPE.
STAGE 2
Autonomy vs. Shame and
Doubt (18 mos. – 3 or 4
years old)
Psychosocial Crisis
- The task is to achieve a
degree of autonomy while
minimizing shame and doubt.
Maladaptation/malignancy
IMPULSIVENESS – a sort of shameless
wilfulness that leads you, to jump into
things without proper consideration of your
abilities.
COMPULSIVENESS – is too much shame
and doubt.
Virtue
- If you get the proper, positive
balance or autonomy and shame and
doubt, you will develop the virtue of
willpower or determination.
STAGE 3
Initiative vs. Guilt (3 or 4
years old – 5 or 6 years
old)
Psychosocial Crisis
- The task is to learn
initiative without too
much guilt.
Ruthlessness – it is to be
heartless or unfeeling or be
“without mercy”.
Virtue
- A good balance leads to
the psychosocial strength of
purpose.
STAGE 4
Industry vs. Inferiority (6
years old – 12 years old)
Psychosocial Crisis
- The task is to develop a
capacity of industry while
avoiding an excessive sense of
inferiority.
NARROW VIRTOUSITY – this are
children that weren’t allowed to “be
children”.
INERTIA – this includes all of us who
suffer from the “inferiority complex”.
Virtue
- A happier thing is to develop the
right balance of industry and
inferiority, the virtue we called
competency.
STAGE 5
Identity vs. Role
Confusion (18 – 20 years
old)
Psychosocial Crisis
- The task during adolescence
is to achieve ego identity and
avoid role confusion.
Maladaption/Malignancy
FANATICISM – too much “ego identity”
where a person is so involved in a
particular role in a particular society or
subculture that there is no room left for
tolerance.
Virtue
- If you successfully negotiate
this stage, you will have the
virtue fidelity.
STAGE 6
Intimacy vs. Isolation
(18-30 years old)
Psychosocial Crisis
- The task is to achieve some
degree of intimacy, as opposed
to remaining in isolation.
Maladaption/Malignancy
PROMISCUITY – the tendency to become intimate
too freely, too easily and without any depth to your
intimacy.
EXCLUSION – refers to the tendency to isolate
oneself from love, friendship and community to
develop certain hatefulness in compensation for
one’s loneliness.
Virtue
- If you successfully negotiate
this stage, you will instead carry
with you for the rest of your life
the virtue love.
STAGE 7
Generativity vs.
Stagnation
(raising children)
Psychosocial Crisis
- The task here is to develop
the proper balance of
generativity and stagnation.
Generativity – is an extension
of love into the future. It is the
concern for the next generation
and all future generation.
OVEREXTENSION – some people try to be so
generative that they no longer have time for
themselves, for rest or relaxation.
REJECTIVITY – too little generativity and too
much stagnation and no longer participating in
or contributing to the society.
Virtue
- But if you are successful at
this stage, you will have the
capacity for caring.
STAGE 8
Integrity vs. Despair
(Adulthood to Maturity)
Psychosocial Crisis
- The task is to develop ego
integrity with a minimal
amount of despair.
PRESUMPTION – this is what happens
when a person “presumes” ego integrity
without actually facing the difficulties of
old age.
DISDAIN – a contempt of life, ones own or
anyone’s.
Virtue
- Someone who approaches
death without fear has the
strength called wisdom.
C. Cognitive Development Theory
(Jean Piaget)
 Piaget used semi-structured interviews
with children to determine how they
think and how their thinking changes by
analyzing their responses to particular
questions and scenarios.
 Development is the active construction
of knowledge and learning as the
passive formation of associations. He
believe that cognitive development has
to come before learning.
STAGE 1:
SENSORIMOTOR
STAGE
(Birth to Infancy)
SENSORI-MOTOR STAGE – This is
the stage when a child who is initially
reflexive in grasping, sucking and
reaching.
- Becomes more organize in his
movement and activity.
Object Permanence – is the
ability of the child to know
that an object still exists even
when out of sight.
STAGE 2:
PRE-OPERATIONAL
STAGE
(2yrs to 7yrs)
PRE-OPERATIONA STAGE – this
stage the child can now make mental
representations and is able to pretend.
- The child is now ever closer to use
symbol.
Symbolic Function – is the
ability to represent objects and
events,
Symbol – is a thing that
represents something else.
Egocentrism – is the tendency of
the child to only see his point of
view and to assume that
everyone also has his same point
of view.
Centration – refers to the
tendency of the child to only
focus on one aspect of a thing
or event and exclude other
aspects.
Irreversibility – children
this stage still have the
inability to reverse their
thinking.
Animism – this is the tendency
of children to attribute human-
like traits or characteristics to
inanimate objects.
Transductive Reasoning –
refers to child’s type of
reasoning that is neither
inductive nor deductive.
STAGE 3:
CONCRETE
OPERATIONAL STAGE
(ages between 8 to 11 years)
Concrete-Operational Stage –
this stage is characterized by
the child’s ability to think
logically but only in terms of
concrete object.
Decentering – refers to the
ability of the child to perceive
different features of objects
and situations.
Reversibility – the child can
now follow that certain
operations can be done in
reverse.
Conservation – is the ability to know
that certain properties of objects like
number, mass, volume or area do not
change even if there is a change in
appearance.
Seriation – this refers to the
ability to order or arrange
things in a series based on one
dimension such as weight,
volume or size.
STAGE 4:
FORMAL
OPERATIONAL STAGE
(ages between 12 years and up)
Formal Operational Stage – the
child thinks more logical.
- They can now solve abstract
problems and can hypothesize.
Hypothetical Reasoning – is the
ability to come up, to gather
and weight data in order to
make a final decision or
judgement.
Analogical Reasoning – the ability to
perceive the relationship in one
instance and then use that
relationship to narrow down possible
answers in another similar situation
or problem.
Deductive Reasoning – is the
ability to think logically by
applying general rule to a
particular instance or
situation.
Reflexive Thinking –
ability to think deeply,
thinking about one’s
thinking.
Adolescent Egocentrism – an
imaginary audience is always
watching what the child says
and does.
(Jean Piaget)
SCHEMA THEORY
Schema (plural: schemata/schemes):
refers to our existing understanding of
how the world works.
Adaptation – a process where
schemes that are challenged by
conflicting evidence, and the brain
works to resolve these
inconsistences.
Assimilation – is the process of
fitting a new experience into an
existing or previously created
cognitive structure or schema.
Accommodation – is the
process of creating new
schema.
Equilibration – is achieving
proper balance between
assimilation and
accommodation.
Cognitive Disequilibrium –
when experiences do not match
the schemata, or cognitive
structures of experience.
(Jean Piaget)
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(Jean Piaget)
Piaget’s 2 Stages of Moral Development
1. Heteronomous Morality/Moral realism –
focus is on rules and seriousness of
consequences of action; rules are sacred and
are set by powerful authority; consequences
of action are more important than intentions.
2. Autonomous Morality/Moral Relativism –
actions are judge according to intentions;
rules may be changed and can be made by
anyone; intentions are more important than
consequences of an action.
D. Socio-Cultural Theory of
Development (Lev Vygotsky)
 Vygotsky’s idea about language, culture and
cognitive development have become major
influence in psychology and education
today.
 Socio-cultural theory emphasizes the crucial
influence that social interactions and
language, embedded within a cultural
context, have on cognitive development.
Private/Inner Speech – the use of words in
thinking that guides and monitors thinking and
problem-solving.
ZONE OF ACTUAL DEVELOPMENT –
refers to the level where the learner can do a
task or perform a skill alone.
ZONE OF POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENT –
refers to the level where the learner cannot
do a task or perform a skill even with
assistance.
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT –
refers to the difference between what the
child can accomplish alone and what he/she
can accomplish with the guidance of another.
Actual Level of Potential

Development Development
ZONE OF
PROXIMAL
DEVELOPMENT
Task that a child Tasks that a child Tasks that a child

can successfully can accomplish cannot accomplish
accomplish only with some even with
without assistance and considerable
assistance. support. assistance and
support.
Increasing task difficulty --------------------------------------------------->

Scaffolding – assistance provided by more
competent peers or adults to enable the task
to be done successfully. It can be in a form of
clues, reminders, encouragement, prompts,
breaking the problem down in steps,
providing examples and feedbacks.
Fade-away Technique: a technique in which
as the learners become more proficient with
the tasks they could not initially do without
assistance, the guidance is gradually
withdrawn.
More Knowledgeable
Other (MKO)
1.I do, you watch.
2.I do, you help.
3.You do, I help.
4.You do, I watch.
E. Moral Development Theory (Lawrence
Kohlberg)
 Focused on a developmental
sequence of stages in which
individuals restructure their
thinking about moral issues as
they mature.
 Each level of moral reasoning is
composed of 2 distinct moral
stages.
E. Moral Development Theory (Lawrence
Kohlberg)
Level 1. Pre-Conventional
1. Punishment and obedience orientation
2. Reward/mutual benefit orientation
Level 2. Conventional
3. Social approval orientation
4. Social order orientation
Level 3. Post-Conventional
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles
F. Identity Status Theory (James
Marcia)
Focuses specifically on adolescent
development.
Expanded upon Erikson’s concept
of identity crisis and identity
confusion.
One’s sense of identity is
determined largely by the choices
and commitments made regarding
certain personal and social traits.
Marcia)
Identity – involves a sexual orientation, set of
values and ideals, career/vocational direction, self-
awareness of your own strengths, weaknesses and
uniqueness.
Crisis – certain situations and events serve as a
catalysts that prompt the individual into moving
through the various identity statuses.
Commitment – outcome of a crisis made to a
certain role or value. The act of binding oneself to a
course of action.
Exploration – break away from your beliefs and
explore alternative beliefs/identities.
Marcia)
G. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
Systems Theory
View the person as developing within a
complex system of relationship affected by
multiple levels of surrounding environment.
Systems Theory
The components of the ecological
system model are the following:
1. Microsystem – the innermost level of
environment, it refers to activities and
interaction patterns in the person’s
immediate surroundings.
2. Mesosystem – refers to connections
between Microsystem that fosters
development.
Systems Theory
3. Exosystem – refers to social settings that
do not contain the developing person but
nevertheless affect experiences in
immediate settings.
4. Macrosystem – consists of the values,
laws, customs and resources of a particular
culture.
5. Chronosystem – the environment is
dynamic and ever-changing. The temporal
dimension of Bronfenbrenner’s model.
Bio-ecological Model
of
Human Development
(Bronfenbrenner, 2001)
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
a. KEY TERMS
Impairment – loss or abnormality of psychological,
physiological or anatomical structure or function –
intrinsic to individuals.
Disability – measurable impairment or limitation that
“interferes” with a person’s ability. It may refer to
physical, sensory or mental condition.
Handicap –disadvantage that occurs as a result of
disability.
Exceptional Learners – learners who are different from
“normal” or “average” learners having special needs.
Inclusive Education – also called “inclusion” is an
education that includes everyone, regardless of any
challenges they may have.
B. Categories of Exceptionalities
There are 5 major categories of
exceptionalities according to Omrod
(2000):
1. Cognitive or academic difficulties
2. Social/emotional and behavioural
difficulties
3. Physical disabilities and health
impairments
4. Sensory impairments
5. Giftedness
a. Cognitive and Academic
Difficulties
 Learning Disabilities –
perception, language, memory or
metacognition.
-Dyslexia – reading disorder
-Dysgraphia – writing disorder
-Dyscalculia – arithmetic disorder
-Dyspraxia – psychomotor disorder
 ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder) – inattention, distractability;
with or without hyperactivity.
 Intellectual Disability (formerly mental
retardation) – sub-average intelligence
and deficits in adaptive behaviour.
Down syndrome – a congenital disorder
arising form a chromosome defect. It arises
from a defect involving chromosome 21,
usually an extra copy (trisomy-21).
Fragile X syndrome – the most common
heritable form of mental retardation and is due
to dynamic mutation (trinucleotide repeat) at
an inherited fragile site on the X chromosome;
therefore, it is an X-linked disorder.
Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) – a genetic
disorder due to loss of function of specific
genes.
Fetal Alcohol syndrome – a congenital
syndrome caused by excessive consumption
of alcohol by the mother during pregnancy.
Speech and Communication Disorders –
spoken language including voice disorders.
b. Social/Emotional and Behavioural

Difficulties
Autism – social skills, repetitive behaviours,
speech and non-verbal communication.
 Asperger’s syndrome – a developmental
disorder related to autism and
characterized by higher-then-average
intellectual ability.
Emotional/Conduct Disorders – presence of emotional
states like depression and aggression disturbing
learning and performance in school.
Schizophrenia – psychotic disorder characterized by
distorted thinking.
Paranoia – extreme fear.
Narcissism – extreme love of self.
Anti-social – has no friends.
Extreme Dependence – cannot make simple decisions
for oneself.
Acting Child – full of pretense.
Withdrawn Child – extreme shyness.
c. Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments
Physical and Health Impairments – affect
individual’s energy and strength, mental alertness
and muscle control.
Orthopedic Impairment – bone and muscular
defect.
Poliomyelitis – infantile paralysis caused by virus.
Osteomyelitis – tuberculosis of the bone and
spine.
Bone fracture - breaks in the continuity of bones.
Muscular Dystrophy – deterioration of the
muscles.
Neuro-Muscular Impairments – defects of the nerve and
muscle system.
Cerebral Palsy – non-progressive alteration of movement
or motor functioning.
Erb’s Palsy – “birth palsy” paralysis of the muscles of the
shoulders, arms and hands.
Congenitically Crippled – crippling conditions at birth.
Club foot – deformed feet accompanied by webbed toes.
Clubhand – deformed hand and fingers.
Polydactylism – with extra toes and fingers.
Syndactylism – webbed fingers or toes.
Severe and Multiple Disabilities – presence of 2 or
more different types of disabilities.
d. Sensory Impairments
Visual Impairments – malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves
that prevent normal vision even.
Myopia – farsightedness
Hyperopia – nearsightedness
Astigmatism
Hearing Impairments (hearing loss) – malfunction of the ear
or auditory nerves that hinders perception of sounds within the
frequency range of normal speech.
e. Giftedness
- Speaks of talent, which includes all areas of a child’s life:
academic, artistic, athletic and social.
- Involves significant high levels of cognitive development
performance and accomplishment.
Six Areas where Giftedness can
be found:
a.Creative thinking
b.Leadership
c.General intellectual ability
d.Psychomotor
e.Specific academic ability; and
f. Visual performing arts
Characteristics:
a.Perfectionist and idealistic.
b.Heightened sensitivity to their
own expectations and to those of
others.
c.Maturity beyond age.
d.Problem-solvers.
e.Abstract thinkers.
C. Dealing with Learners with
Exceptionalities
 Use people-first language
 No generic labels
 Emphasize abilities; not limitations
 No euphemisms
 No implication of illness or suffering
 Give brief and simple instructions.
 Give clear definition of course requirements, the dates of
exams and deadline of assignments.
 Provide handouts and visual aids and study guides.
 Provide several examples and demonstrations.
 Allow time consultation.
 Allow asking and providing assistance.
 Give encouragement.
 Always be patient.
D. Common Instructional Practices
under Inclusive Education
Individual Education Program Plan (IEP) – a
written plan/program developed by the school’s
special education team with input from the
parents and specifies the student’s academic
goals and the method to obtain these goals.
 The EIP team us led by a special educator
and consists of other education
professionals, school personnel, parents,
students (age 15 or older) and others who
have special knowledge of the child.
Universal Design for Learning – recognizes and
accommodated varied learning styles focusing on
social participation and inclusion.
Adaptations – are changes in the way instruction
and assessment are carried out to allow a learner
equal opportunity to demonstrate mastery of concepts
and achieve the desired learning outcomes.
 Accommodation: a change of how a student learns
the material.
 Modification – a change of what a student is taught
or expected to learn.
Integration or Mainstreaming – allows children
and youth with special disabilities to study in
regular classes and learn side by side with their
peers.
 Partial – children who have moderate or
severe forms of disabilities have been
mainstreamed in a regular classes in subjects
like PE, Home Technology, Music and Arts.
 Full – children with disabilities are enrolled in
regular classes and recite in all the subjects.
RESEARCH in
EDUCATION
A. Definitions
RESEARCH – a process; systematic,
organized, objective, critical, exhaustive and
comprehensive; done to solve a problem or to
add to the body of existing knowledge.
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH – refers to the
systematic collection and analysis of data
related to the field of education. It may involve a
variety of methods and various aspects of
education, including student learning, teaching
methods, teacher training and classroom
dynamics.
B. Characteristics of a Good
Research
A good educational research exhibits the following
characteristics:
Objective: must be devoid of any biases, for or against particular
outcomes.
Accurate: only valid assumptions, proper measurements and
detailed interpretations must be used.
Feasible: must be given the available resources and amount of
time.
Efficient: must be focused on the successful achievement of
goals for the research while maximizing the available resources.
Functional: must be beneficial to some party, organization or
individual.
Ethical: must be within provisions of moral standards.
C. 7 Steps of the
Research Process
1. Define research problem.
2. Review the literatures.
3. Formulate the hypotheses.
4. Decide on appropriate research design
and tools.
5. Collect the data.
6. Analyze the data.
7. Interpret, synthesize and write the full
report.
D. General Classifications of
Research
1. Based on who undertakes and for what purpose:
 Academic Research
 Research Project
2. Based on research application:
 Pure/Theoretical Research
 Applied Research
3. Based on the type of information sought:
 Quantitative Research
 Qualitative Research
 Mixed Methods
E. Types of Quantitative
Research
1. Experimental Research Designs
 Pre-experimental Design
 Quasi-experimental Design
 True experimental Design
2. Non-Experimental Research Design
 Descriptive Research
 Explanatory Research
 Exploratory Research
 Correlational or Associational Research
- Prospective
- Retrospective
 Developmental Research
- Cross-sectional Research
- Longitudinal Research
- Sequential Design
F. Types of Qualitative
Research
1. Phenomenology
2. Ethnography
3. Grounded Theory
4. Historical Research
5. Case study
6. Action research
7. Field study / Research
8. Content analysis

Child and Adult 1

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Child and Adult 1

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Child and Adult 1

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Child and Adolescent

Learner and Learning

Developmental Task – introduced by

 Gross motor – using large

Actual Level of Potential

Task that a child Tasks that a child Tasks that a child

Increasing task difficulty --------------------------------------------------->

b. Social/Emotional and Behavioural

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