Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J.

Sternberg
Chapter 4

Chapter 4: Attention and

Consciousness
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Attention Is…
• The concentration of mental energy
that must be used to process incoming
information
– Selective
– Limited
– Both conscious and preconscious
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Main points
• Preconscious: Items that lie outside our
conscious awareness
• Priming, Automatic vs. control process

• Conscious attention
1) Searching – Treisman’s theory
2) Selective Attention – Three theories, Resource account, Stroop
3) Divided Attention – Dual task paradigm
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Priming
BREAD NURSE CAT

BUTTER DOCTOR DOG

• How quickly do you process the second

word?
• Faster if you have been primed with a
related word.
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

NURSE
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

DOCTOR
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Marcel (1983)
Condition Subliminally Consciously
Present Prime Present Prime

Prime PALM PALM

Mask XXXX XXXX

Target PINE OR WRIST PINE OR WRIST

Response Body part or Plant? Body Part or Plant?

Reaction time How fast? How fast?

 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Marcel (1983) Results

Condition Subliminally Consciously Present
Present Prime
Prime
Targets: Found faster RT Found faster RT for
PINE or for both target one of two target
WRIST words words, slower RT
for the other target
Interpretation Both meanings Only one meaning is
were primed primed, the other
inhibited
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Priming Can Speed or Slow Processing

• Facilitative Priming
– Target stimuli (e.g., BUTTER) are
processed faster if preceded by a related
word (e.g., BREAD)
• Priming => Let us know what’s going
on early cognitive processes.
Information processing in unconscious
level
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Controlled vs. Automatic Processing

• Automatic processing
– Requires no conscious control

• Controlled processing
– Requires conscious control
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Is Typing Automatic or
Controlled for You?
• Do you type without thinking where your
fingers are? Are you a search-and-peck
typer?
• If you do type without using attention, what
happens when you think about the letters as
you are typing them?
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Functions of Conscious Attention

• Searching

• Selective Attention

• Divided Attention
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Search
• Actively searching for a target
• Number of targets and distracters
influence accuracy
• Feature search versus conjunctive
search
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Conjunctive vs. Feature Search

L L L L L L L
Which box is it easier
L L L L L L L
to detect a letter that is
L O L L L L L
different?
L L L L L L L

L L L LThe box on top is a feature

L L L
L L L L L L L search
L L L L T L L
The box on the bottom is a
L L L L L L L
conjunction search
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Treisman’s Feature-Integration Theory

• Individual Feature processing is done in
parallel. Simultaneous processing is done on
the whole display and if feature is present-- we
detect it.
• Conjunctive searching requires attention to the
integration or combination of the features.
Attention to particular combination of features
must be done sequentially to detect presence of
a certain combination.
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Another Feature Search

Is there a red T in the
T T
Display?
T
T T T T
Target is defined by a T
single feature
T T T
According to feature
integration theory the T T T T
Target should “pop out” T
T
No attention required
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Another Conjunction Search

Is there a red T in the
Display?
X X T
Target is defined by two
Features: shape and color
T X T
T X X
According to FIT, the T
features must be combined X X
and so attention is required T
T T
Need to examine one by one
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Selectivity of Attention
• Cocktail Party Problem
– How are we able to follow one
conversation in the presence of other
conversations?
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Cherry’s Shadowing Technique

Attended Ear Unattended Ear
The doctor went to The lawyer
the park to find the defended his client
homeless man. He as the trial began.
was He was able

…..The doctor went to

the park…..

Listen to two different conversations and repeat

one of the messages, may be binaural or dichotic
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Cherry’s Study Results

• Noticed in unattended ear:
– Change in gender
– Familiar name including the subject’s
• Did not notice in unattended ear:
– Changed language
– Changed topic, same speaker
– If speech was played backwards
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Models of Selective Attention

• Do they have a filter?

• Where does the filter occur?

 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Broadbent’s Model

Sensory Sensory Working

Stores Filter Memory

• Only one sensory channel is allowed Long

to proceed Term
• Stimuli filtered at sensory level Memory
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Broadbent’s Model Could Not Explain

• Participant’s name gets through
• Participants can shadow meaningful
messages that switches from one ear to
another
• Effects of practice on detecting
information in unattended ear (e.g.,
detect digit in unattended ear for naïve
and practiced participants)
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Treisman Attenuation Model

Attenuation of
Unattended
Sensory Working
Stores Memory

Filter weakens the strength of unattended information.

Arrow colors represent different levels of strength Long
Term
If arrow reaches circle, info will be activated in Memory
working memory
Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Late Selection Theory

Sensory Working
Stores Memory

All stimuli is processed to the level of

Long
meaning; relevance determines further
Term
Processing and action Memory
Deutsch & Deutsch (1963)
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Neisser’s Synthesis
• Preattentive Processes
– Parallel
– Note physical characteristics
• Attentive Processes
– Controlled processes occur serially
– Occur in working memory
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Stroop Effect
Say the color the words red
are printed in as quickly yellow
green
as you can
blue
Reading interferes with your
red
ability to state the color and
blue
your reaction time is slower
yellow
green
rat (control), blue(fastest) blue
How about bloo? red
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Divided Attention
• How many tasks can you do at once?
– e.g. driving & talking, radio, phone...

• Related to automatic processes

 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Dual Task Paradigm

• Task 1 may require a verbal response
to an auditory stimulus
• Task 2 may require a participant to
push a button in response to a visual
stimulus.
• Results indicate that responses to the
Task 1 are delayed
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

경고 신호 첫번째글자 두번째글자

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 : 음제시
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Real Life Dual Task

• Driving and
– Cell phones
– Adjusting music
– Watching the scenery
• Almost 80 % of crashes and 65 % of
near-crashes involved some form of
driver inattention within three seconds
of the event
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Strayer & Drews (2007)

• Naturalistic Observation of cell phone
use and driver behavior

Failed to Stopped
stop properly
On Cell Phone 82 28
No Cell Phone 352 1286
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Strayer & Drews (2007) Results

• Impact of hands free cell phone
conversations on simulated driving:
– Cell-phone conversation led to
inattentional-blindness
– Even if they looked at an object,
participant did not remember the object
 Cognitive Psychology, Fifth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 4

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

(ADHD)
• Symptoms
– Inattention
– Hyperactivity
– Impulsivity
– Not everyone who is overly hyperactive,
inattentive, or impulsive has ADHD
– Behavior must be demonstrated to a degree that
is inappropriate for the person's age