Improve - 6 - Full Factorial Experiments - v12-2

Improve Phase
Full Factorial Experiments

Welcome to Improve
Process Modeling: Regression
Advanced Process Modeling: MLR
Designing Experiments
Mathematical Models
Experimental Methods
Balance and Orthogonality
Fit and Diagnose Model
Fractional Factorial Experiments
Center Points
Wrap Up & Action Items
LSS Black Belt v12 MT - Improve Phase 2 © Open Source Six Sigma, LLC
Why Use Full Factorial Designs
2k Full Factorial designs are used to:

• Investigate multiple factors at only two levels requiring fewer runs than multi-level
designs.
• Investigate large number of factors simultaneously in relatively few runs.
• Provide insight into potential interactions.
• Frequently used in industrial DOE applications because of simplicity and ease of
analysis.
• Obtain a mathematical relationship between X’s and Y’s.
• Determine a numerical, mathematical relationship to identify the most important or
critical factors in the experiments.
Full Factorial designs are used when:

• There are five or fewer factors.
• You know the critical factors and need to explain interactions.
• Optimizing processes.
Mathematical Output of Experiments
• The objective of a DOE is a mathematical function to describe the results of

the experiment.
• For the 2k Factorial designs this module discusses Linear relationships.
• All models will have some error as shown by the ε in the below equation.
• The mathematical equation below is the Prediction from the experimental

data. Notice there is no error term in this form.
• is the predicted Output Response as a function of the Input Variables used
in the experiment.
Ŷ
Linear Mathematical Model
The Linear Model is sufficient for most industrial experimental objectives.

The Linear Model can explain response planes and twisted response surfaces because
of interactions.
– The following is a linear prediction model used in a two-level full or fractional
factorials.
Surface Plot of % Reacted Surface Plot of % Reacted
65
65
60 55
% Reacted % Reacted
1 1
55
45
-1
0
Cn -1
0
Cn
0 -1 0 -1
Ct 1 T 1
Quadratic Mathematical Model
Quadratic Models can be obtained with designs not described in this module.
Quadratic Models explain curvature, maximums, minimums and twisted maximums
and minimums when interactions are active.
– The following is the quadratic prediction model used in some response surface
models not covered in this training.
– The simpler 2k models do not include enough information to generate the
Quadratic Model.
Surface Plot of C6
21
16
C6
11
1.5
1.0
6 0.5
-1.5 -0.5
0.0
B
-1.0 -0.5 -1.0
0.0 0.5 -1.5
A 1.0 1.5
Nomenclature for Factorial Experiment
2-level designs are most commonly used:

– 2k where k is the number of factors
– The total number of runs in the design is equal to the result of the
math.
• Example: 3 factors
• 23 = 8 runs
How many levels?
Other designs have more levels in the Factorial Designs.

– Example is a 34 factorial design with 4 factors at 3 levels for each
factor.
Treatment Combinations
– This 22 design shown below has 2 factors at 2 levels.

– A total of 4 treatment combinations are in this experiment.
Temperature
10 20 Treatment combination
Pressure 50 1 2
100 3 4 for run number 2 is:
Temperature at 20 deg
and Pressure at 50 psi.
Standard Order of 2 Level Designs
The design matrix for 2k factorials are shown in standard order (not
randomized).
– The low level is indicated by a “ -” and the high level by a “ +” .
– This order is commonly referred to Yates standard order for Dr. Frank
Yates.
Full Factorial Design with 4 Factors
Full Factorial Design
Stat>DOE>Factorials>Create Factorial Design
This design is in coded units because it simply lists minus and plus signs for the factor
levels. Coded units provide some advantages in the analysis but is not useful for
process owners when running an experiment.
The table is also referred to as a Table of Contrasts.
Factors
Balanced Design
Balance simplifies the math necessary to analyze the experiment.

– If you always use the designs MINITABTM provides they will always be
balanced.
A B
1 - -
2 + -
3 - +
4 + +
 Xi 0 0
Orthogonal Design
With an Orthogonal Design we look to see if an interaction is found

to be significant through the data.
AA BB CC AB
AB AC
AC BC
BC
11 -- -- ++ ++ -- --
22 ++ -- -- -- -- ++
33 -- ++ -- -- ++ --
44 ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
 Xi X y  00 00 00
Biomedical Production Example
1. Define the Practical Problem

• Increase the current production yield by 50%. The Measurement System Analysis
for yield has been confirmed as acceptable. The baseline for the primary metric of
yield is at 50%. The objective of the Project Charter required the team to achieve at
least a 50% increase in yield.
2. Establish the Experimental Objective

• Maximize the yield.
3. Select the Output (response) Variables

• Yield of protein expression is the only output of interest.
• It is desirable to change the yield from 50% to at least 75%.
4. Select the Input (independent) Variables

• Temperature
• Concentration
• Catalyst
• Noise and other variables such as ambient room temperature and technician will be
recorded during the experiment.
5. Choose the Levels for the Input Variables

• The following levels were determined with tools from the Analyze Phase such as
Regression, Box Plots, Hypothesis Testing and Scatter Plots. The levels were set far
enough to attempt large yield changes to get statistical confidence in our results.
– Temperature C (25, 45)
– Concentration % (5, 15)
– Catalyst (Supplier A, Supplier B)
6. Select the Experimental Design

• A Full Factorial Design is desired because the team has no knowledge of the
interactions and the number of factors is only 3.
• Randomization is desired because of statistical confidence.
• Randomization is possible because all factors can be changed easily without large,
long disruptions to the process.
• The sample size will be based on a delta of 2 Standard Deviations.
Stat>Power and Sample Size> 2-level Full Factorial
Stat>DOE> factorial>Create Factorial Design
For ease of data entry for the results of the DOE we have turned off “Randomize
runs” by removing the check mark in the window in the “Options…” tab.
Do NOT edit, copy, paste or alter anything in the first 7 columns

or MINITABTM will not understand the worksheet.
7. Execute the Experiment and Collect Data

• Enter the results of the experiment in the column labeled “ Yield” ; our output.
• The ambient room temperature and technician were recorded per our original plan
but we did not place the information into this worksheet.
8. Analyze the Data from the Designed Experiment

Stat>DOE> Factorial>Analyze Factorial Design Select “Normal” and “Paret
o” for Effects Plots.
Select “Standardized” for
Residuals for Plots.
MINITABTM defaults with all

effects in the model. After the
significant effects are
determined the insignificant
effects will be removed.
The Normal Probability Plot assumes

insignificant effects are due to Noise and
therefore Normally Distributed. Any
significant effects will be plotted off the
straight line and highlighted in red.
The Pareto chart of

standardized effects graphically
shows which effects are
significant based on the selected
alpha level. Any effect going
beyond the red line is
significant.
In the Session Window under the Factorial Fit any effect having a P-value less than 0.05
(for an alpha of 0.05) is considered significant.
Notice all three methods of determining what effects belong in the final model fit agree.
Factorial Fit: Yield versus Temp, Conc, Supplier
Estimated Effects and Coefficients for Yield (coded units)
Term Effect Coef SE Coef T P

Constant 61.1250 0.1811 337.44 0.000
Temp 23.4500 11.7250 0.1811 64.73 0.000
Conc 0.5750 0.2875 0.1811 1.59 0.151
Supplier 0.0000 0.0000 0.1811 0.00 1.000
Temp*Conc -0.0250 -0.0125 0.1811 -0.07 0.947
Temp*Supplier 10.0500 5.0250 0.1811 27.74 0.000
Conc*Supplier -0.4750 -0.2375 0.1811 -1.31 0.226
Temp*Conc*Supplier 0.1750 0.0875 0.1811 0.48 0.642
Re-fit the model by removing the insignificant factors.
Even though Supplier was not a

significant effect it is necessary to include
it in the model because the Temp/Supplier
effect was significant.
This type of model is referred to as a

Hierarchical Model.
The output of this, the Residuals Analysis, will be discussed shortly but
for now let’s create some factorial plots…
Anytime there is a significant interaction it is useful to plot. Plot both “Main Effects Plot” and
“Interaction Plot” in this example.
Stat>DOE> Factorial>Factorial Plots
Non-parallel lines in the

Interaction Plot indicated
significance. The lines do not
have to cross each other to be
significant. Also they can cross
slightly and still be insignificant.
A steep slope in the Main

Effects Plot indicates
significance. A flat slope
indicates no significance.
Model is significant
Interpret the Residual Analysis the same as in Regression.
Spread of Residuals
9. Draw Practical Solutions

Stat>DOE> Factorial>Response Optimizer
Recall the objective was to

maximize the yield. It is
necessary to establish a target
and lower limit for the yield
values.
Optimization Plot
Response Optimization: Yield
Parameters
Response Goal Lower Target Upper Weight

Importance
Yield Maximum 50 75 1 1
Yield Composite
Solution Temp Supplier Fit Desirability
1 45 B 77.875 1
Response Fit SE Fit 95% CI 95% PI

Yield 77.875 0.369 (77.070, 78.680) (76.075, 79.675)
Practical Solution: Temp 45oC, Concentration 5%, Supplier B
10. Replicate or Validate the Experimental Results

• Verify, verify, verify.
• Verify settings determined in the last step by producing several typical
manufacturing quantities.
• The variation or error seen in the experiment will be different than the
variation seen in the manufacturing validation.
11. Implement Solutions

• If the objective of the experiment was accomplished and the Business Case
is satisfied then proceed to the Control Plan which is covered in the
Control Phase.
• Further experiments may need to be designed to further change the output
to satisfy the Business Case.
• Implement the changes necessary to maintain the new gains to the process.
Center Points
A Center Point is an additional experimental run made at the physical center of the design.
– Center Points do not change the model to quadratic.
– They allow a check for adequacy of Linear model.
The Center Point provides a check to see if it is valid to say the output response is Linear
through the center of the design space.
If a straight line connecting high and low levels passes through the center of the design the
model is adequate to predict inside the design space.
– “Curvature” is the statistic used to interpret the adequacy of the Linear Model.
– If curvature is significant the P-value will be less than 0.05.
Do NOT predict outside the design space.
Output Response
“-” “0” “+” Factor Settings
Center Point Clues
A Center Point is always a good insurance policy but is most effective when
all the input factors are Continuous.
A guideline is to run 2-4 Center Point runs distributed uniformly through the
experiment when all the input factors are continuous in a Full or Fractional
Factorial.
Y
Maximize Response
Does it matter that
the linear model is
inappropriate?
x
“-” “0” “+”
Panel Cleaning Example
1. Define the Practical Problem

• Start up the new equipment as efficiently as possible. The need for the new
equipment was determined in the Analyze Phase.
• A Measurement System Analysis has been completed and modified to bring within
acceptable guidelines.
2. Establish the Experimental Objective

• Hit a target for Width of 40 +/- 5.
• Minimize variation as much as possible.
3. Select the Output (response) Variables

• Width of conductor is the only response.
4. Select the Input (independent) Variables

• Dwell Time
• Temperature
• Na2S2O8
• The experts believe ambient temperature and humidity will have no effect
on the process. Monitors will be placed in the room to record temperature
and humidity.
5. Choose the Levels for the Input Variables

– Dwell Time ( 4, 6) minutes
– Temperature (40, 80) C
– Na2S2O8 (1.8, 2.4) gm/lit
6. Select the Experimental Design

• A Full Factorial will be used since there are only 3 input variables.
• Randomization is possible because all factors can be changed easily without large,
long disruptions to the process.
• Is the sample size adequate based on a delta of 2 Standard Deviations?
Notice the
Center Points
are uniformly
distributed
through the
design.
Panel Cleaning.mtw
Why are
Center
Points not
random?
Creating Designs with Center Points
MINITABTM will place the Center Points randomly in the worksheet.

Through the next few steps we will demonstrate how to move the Center
Points so they are uniformly distributed.
• Create a 3 factor design with 3 Center Points and 2 replicates, be sure
to randomize the design.
Stat > DOE > Create Factorial Design…
Notice the Center

Points are not
uniformly distributed
with this random
design. It is desirable
to move one Center
Point near or at the
beginning, middle and
end.
Again DO NOT move rows or generate new worksheets in

MINITABTM’s DOE platform since it will corrupt the model stored in
memory!
To move the Center

Points to new locations
find a Center Point and
type a ‘1’ in the
“ RunOrder” column.
Find the original 1 and
replace with the
original Center Point
RunOrder number.
Data>Sort
7. Execute the Experiment and Collect Data

• The experiment has been run in the order shown below.
• One of the most common
mistakes in DOE is typing
the data in the data sheet
incorrectly. Always verify
number entry!
8. Analyze the Data from the Designed Experiment

Stat>DOE> Factorial>Analyze Factorial Design
…Terms…
…Graphs…
The significant effects are

Na2S2O8, Temp, Dwell Time and
the interaction of Temp with
Na2S2O8.
Notice all three methods of determining what effects

belong in the final model fit agree.
Re-fit the model by removing the insignificant factors.
A Degree of Freedom (DF) is a measure of the number of independent pieces of

information used to estimate a parameter. It is a measure of the precision of an
estimate of variability. A typical definition is n -1 = D. F. however it depends on
what parameters are being estimated.
5 DF for the 3 Main Effects, 1, Centre
point & 1 DF for the interaction effect
in the model.
1 DF for curvature based on the
difference between the average of
the factorial points and the average
of the Center Points.
13 DF for residual error broken into two

components: Lack of Fit and Pure Error.
Lack of Fit: 3 DF for the 3 insignificant
interaction effects that were removed
from the model.
Pure Error: 10 DF: 8 from the replicated
runs (#reps-1 * # of runs) and 2 from the
Center Points
18 DF for the Total (#CP – 1).
(# of data points -1).
Adj MS = Adj SS/DF

For each respective source. F= Adj MS/MSError
No significant
curvature, the
linear model is
adequate.
No
significant
lack of fit,
the effects
do not
belong in
the model.
Prediction
Equation
based on
Ŷ  - 70.47  2.44 * Dwell Time  1.02 * Temp  uncoded
coefficients.
39.6625 * Na 2S2 O8 - 0.41 * Temp * Na 2S2 O8
Prediction Equation
Determine the predicted value when:

– Dwell time = 4.2 minutes
– Temp = 75C
– Sodium Persulfate = 2.0
Simply insert these values and do the math.
Main Effects Plot for Width

Fitted Means
Dwell Time Temp Na2S2O8 Point Type
Corner
39 Center
38
37
Mean of Width
36
35
34
Interaction Plot for Width
33 Fitted Means
32 1.8 2.1 2.4
Na2S2O8 * Temp Temp Point Type
31 40
40 Corner
60 Center
30 35 80 Corner
4 5 6 40 60 80 1.8 2.1 2.4

Mean of Width
30
25
Temp * Na2S2O8 Na2S2O8 Point Type
40
1.8 Corner
2.1 Center
Interaction shows there is very little 35 2.4 Corner
difference in the predicted response as 30
long as Sodium Persulfate is held at 25
40 60 80
the high level. Temp Na2S2O8
Cube Plot (fitted means) for Width
Centerpoint
37.6769 42.5481 Factorial Point
33.3844 38.2556
80
35.0200
Temp 36.0694 40.9406

2.4
Na2S2O8
22.0244 26.8956
40 1.8
4 6
Dwell Time
The Residual Plots look good.

Residual Plots for Width
Normal Probability Plot Versus Fits
99 2
Standardized Residual
90 1
Percent
50 0
-1
10
1 -2
-2 -1 0 1 2 20 25 30 35 40
Standardized Residual Fitted Value
Histogram Versus Order

2
6.0
4.5 1
Frequency
3.0 0
1.5 -1
0.0 -2
-2 -1 0 1 2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Standardized Residual Observation Order
Residuals Versus Dwell Time Residuals Versus Temp

(response is Width) (response is Width)
2 2
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 40 50 60 70 80
Dwell Time Temp
Residuals Versus Na2S2O8

(response is Width)
2
1
-1
-2
1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4
Na2S2O8
9. Draw Practical Solutions
Stat>DOE> Factorial>Response Optimizer
The Response Optimizer has a little trick; if you include Center Points in
the model it will treat the low, center and high values as discrete points.
Is this the only solution?
Setting each factor at

Predicted output these settings will
achieve the target
output.
What if you assume Na2S2O8 is very expensive? Where would

you set the variables.
Use the mouse and slide the red line for Na2S2O8 to the low
level first then adjust the other sliders to move the predicted
response to 40. Is it possible to achieve 40 with Sodium
Persulfate set at the minimum
value?
There is another MINITABTM function that will show the

complete solution set for a targeted values.
Stat>DOE>Factorial>Overlaid Contour Plot
Dwell Time at Dwell Time at

low setting middle setting
The areas
shown in white
are the
solution set for
Dwell Time at
adjusting
high setting
Temp and
Sodium
Persulfate.
10. Replicate or Validate the Experimental Results

• Verify, verify, verify.
• Verify settings determined in the last step by producing several typical
manufacturing quantities.
• The variation or error seen in the experiment will be different than the
variation seen in the manufacturing validation.
11. Implement Solutions

• If the objective of the experiment was accomplished and the Business Case
is satisfied then proceed to the Control Plan which is covered in the
Control Phase.
• Further experiments may need to be designed to further change the output
to satisfy the Business Case.
• Implement the changes necessary to maintain the new gains to the process.
Summary
At this point you should:
• Understand how to Create Balanced & Orthogonal Designs
• Explain how Fit & Diagnose & Center Points factor into an
experiment

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Improve Phase

Full Factorial Experiments

Process Modeling: Regression

Advanced Process Modeling: MLR

2k Full Factorial designs are used to:

Full Factorial designs are used when:

• The objective of a DOE is a mathematical function to describe the results of

• The mathematical equation below is the Prediction from the experimental

The Linear Model is sufficient for most industrial experimental objectives.

Surface Plot of % Reacted Surface Plot of % Reacted

2-level designs are most commonly used:

How many levels?

Other designs have more levels in the Factorial Designs.

– This 22 design shown below has 2 factors at 2 levels.

Stat>DOE>Factorials>Create Factorial Design

The table is also referred to as a Table of Contrasts.

Balance simplifies the math necessary to analyze the experiment.

With an Orthogonal Design we look to see if an interaction is found

1. Define the Practical Problem

2. Establish the Experimental Objective

3. Select the Output (response) Variables

4. Select the Input (independent) Variables

5. Choose the Levels for the Input Variables

6. Select the Experimental Design

Stat>Power and Sample Size> 2-level Full Factorial

Stat>DOE> factorial>Create Factorial Design

Do NOT edit, copy, paste or alter anything in the first 7 columns

7. Execute the Experiment and Collect Data

8. Analyze the Data from the Designed Experiment

MINITABTM defaults with all

The Normal Probability Plot assumes

The Pareto chart of

Factorial Fit: Yield versus Temp, Conc, Supplier

Estimated Effects and Coefficients for Yield (coded units)

Term Effect Coef SE Coef T P

Re-fit the model by removing the insignificant factors.

Even though Supplier was not a

This type of model is referred to as a

Stat>DOE> Factorial>Factorial Plots

Non-parallel lines in the

A steep slope in the Main

Interpret the Residual Analysis the same as in Regression.

9. Draw Practical Solutions

Recall the objective was to

Response Optimization: Yield

Response Goal Lower Target Upper Weight

Response Fit SE Fit 95% CI 95% PI

Practical Solution: Temp 45oC, Concentration 5%, Supplier B

10. Replicate or Validate the Experimental Results

11. Implement Solutions

“-” “0” “+” Factor Settings

1. Define the Practical Problem

2. Establish the Experimental Objective

3. Select the Output (response) Variables

4. Select the Input (independent) Variables

5. Choose the Levels for the Input Variables

6. Select the Experimental Design