CHAPTER 2

FORMS OF ENERGY
Chapter objectives
After reading the chapter you should be able to:

• explain the different forms of energy;

• explain how energy can be converted from one form to another;

• state practical examples of and reasons for energy conversion processes;

• explain the concept of energy transition, i.e. heat and work;

• calculate the energy transfer and state the energy transfer in a

thermodynamic process.

2
• Energy might be described as the capacity to do
work or cause heat to flow
• Some forms of energy can be stored
• No machine can do work and run forever without
a source of energy
• The amount of work done by the machine is
always less than the amount of energy supplied to
it.

2
Law of Energy Conservation
• The most important and fundamental laws of
science. This states that energy can be neither
created nor destroyed but only converted from one
form to another.
• Implies that energy can be manifested in many
forms that are mutually convertible and can be
measured with the same units.

3
2.1. POTENTIAL ENERGY
• Symbol: PE Unit: Joule (J)
• PE is the energy possessed by the mass due to the
Earth attraction when the mass is located at some
height (h) above an arbitrary datum (reference
line).
• Sir Newton showed that there is a gravitational
attractive force between all bodies
• The magnitude of this force depends on the mass
of each body (m kg)
• Not much used in thermodynamics

4
When one of the masses is the Earth, and the other
mass (m kg) is located near the Earth’s surface, this
force is significant. The force is given by:

F = mg
m
• Where: kg 2  N
s
g = acceleration due to gravity
= 9.81 m-s-2

5
PE = Fh Nm=J
m
= (m g)h kg 2
m  Nm  J (2.1)
s

m
h
m Datum level

PE = 0 PE = mgh

Figure 2.1 Potential Energy

6
Example 2.1 What is the potential energy of a
mass of 10 kg suspended 2 m above the
floor of a laboratory?
Solution:
From Equation 2.1
PE = mgh m
kg m  N m  J
2
= 10 x 9.81 x 2 s

= 196.2 J
= 0.196 kJ

7
Example 2.2 A freshwater lake with an area of 2400 m2
and an average depth of 5 m is located in a
mountainous region which is 250 m above a valley
floor. What is the potential energy stored in this lake
of water?
Solution:
Volume of water in the lake,
V= Area x depth
= 2400 x 5 m2m = m3
= 12 000 m3

8
Density of water = ρ = 1000 kg/m3
Mass of water in lake,
m = ρV
= 1000 x 12000 kg 3
m  kg
3
= 12 x 106 kg m

From Equation 2.1

PE = m g h
m
= 12 x 106 x 9.81 x 250 kg 2 m  N m  J
s
= 41 202 x 106 J
= 41 202 MJ
Conclusion: The lake stores a considerable quantity of
potential energy. This could be converted to electrical
energy.
9
2.1. KINETIC ENERGY
Symbol: KE Unit: Joule (J)
• KE is the energy possessed by the mass which is in
motion, either linear or rotational
• required to accelerate a body from rest
• Stored in a body of mass, m, moving with a velocity,
C, given by

2
C m 2
m (2.2)
KE  m kg 2  kg 2 m  Nm  J
2 s s

10
 Car velocity , C Mass of car, m

mC 2
KE 
2

Velocity , C Fluid
mass, m

mC 2
KE 
2

Figure 2.2. Kinetic Energy

11
Example 2.3 A motor weighing 19,620 N is traveling at 72 km/h. What is
the kinetic energy of the vehicle?
Solution:
From Equation 1.2

w = mg

Hence, mass of the vehicle, m = w/g s2 ms2

N  kg 2  kg
m sm
= 19,620/9.81
= 2000 kg
Velocity of the vehicle, C = 72 km/h
= 72 000/3,600 mh m

= 20 m/s hs s

12
From Equation 2.2

mC 2
KE 
2
202
 2000 x
2
= 400,000 J m2
kg 2  Nm  J
= 400 kJ s

Conclusion:
The vehicle traveling at a typical motoring speed has significant kinetic
energy.

13
Conversion of potential energy to kinetic energy

Here the body of water such as a lake reservoir is held in a mountain

catchment on a mountain

Mountain lake

Pipe line

Water has
Electrical potential energy
generator

/Turbine Water has kinetic

energy

Figure 2.3 Hydro-electric power plant 14

2.3 Work
• Symbol: W Unit: Joule (J)
• The product of a force and the distance moved by
the force along its line of reaction. Like kinetic
energy, work (W) can be linear or rotational

x Shaft

Force, F ѳ Torque
T

W = Fx W = Tѳ

Figure 2.4 Work

15
• work done on the body, there is a transfer of energy to the body.
• the body also does work, there is a transfer of energy from the body,
so work can be said as energy in transition.

Potential energy
stored = mgh
Table

Work done
W = Fh = wh =
F=w h (mg)h

Mass, m
Datum level

Weight,
w = mg
Figure 2. Work done in lifting object stored as potential energy
16
Example 2.4
A crane is used to lift a load of bricks to the top of a new office building. Calculate the
work done if the load of bricks weigh 1600 N and the building is 50 m tall. Compare
the work done with the potential energy of the bricks when on the top of the
building.
Solution:
Force required to lift the bricks
F = weight of the bricks, w
From Equation 2.3
W = Fx
= 1600 x 50 Nm = J
= 80 000 J = 80 kJ
From Equation 2.3
PE = mgh = wh
= 1600 x 50 Nm = J
= 80 000 J = 80 kJ

conclusion: The work done is equivalent to the increase potential energy

of the bricks.
17
Conversion of Work
• in example 2.4 work is converted into potential energy,
• work is energy in transition, it may converted to other
forms of energy too.
• Work can be converted to kinetic energy.
• The engine of the vehicle exerts torque on the output
shaft causing it to rotate and thus produce work.
• This possesses mass and is moving at a certain velocity it
has therefore kinetic energy. This work has been
converted to kinetic energy (Figure 2.6).
• potential energy, kinetic energy, and work all originate
form mechanical source, collectively known as the
mechanical energy.

18
 Car velocity , C
Engine
produces
work
output
v

Figure 2.6. Work done is converted to kinetic energy

2.4 Power
Symbol: P Unit: Watt (W)
• measures the rate of doing a work or converting energy.
• amount of work produced or used by a machine gives no
idea of the size of the machine.

19
If the rate of work transfer is constant then

W Fx x m J
P   F  FC N  W (2.5)
t t t s s

where F = force and C = linear velocity

The most convenient form of mechanical power

transmission in a machine is by means of a
rotating shaft. Thus,
W TΘ  Θ  1 Nm J
Nm    W
(2.6)
P   T   Tω s s s
t t t
 
where T = Torque and ω = angular velocity
20
The unit of power is clearly that of work (Nm or J)
Nm J
divided by time (s). This unit is ( or ) known as
s s
the Watt (W).

1 kW = 103 W
1 MW = 106 W

21
Example 2.5. A force of 1200 N is required to propel a
motor car at 99 km/h along a level road. Ignoring all losses,
determine the power output needed from the engine.

Solution:
C = 99 km/h
mh m
= 99x1000/3600 
h s s
= 27.5 m/s
From Equation 2.5

P = FC
= 1200 x 27.5
= 33,000 W m
N W
= 33 kW s

22
Example 2.6. The output shaft of an engine delivers torque
of 66 Nm. If the shaft rotates 240 times in 4.2 seconds,
calculate the power output of the engine.
Solution:
One revolution = 2π
240 revolutions = 240 x 2π = 1508 radians
Angular velocity = 1508/4.2 = 359 rad/s

From Equation 2.6

P = Tω
= 66 x 359
= 23 700 W 1
Nm  W
= 23.7 kW s
Note: Power is a measure of the rate of doing work. A
typical motor-car-engine produces 25 kW.

23
2.5 HEAT
Symbol: Q Unit: Joule (J)
• Cold drinks left in a room will eventually warm up to the
temperature in the room. Similarly, a hot bowl of soup
left in the same room will cool down to the temperature
of the room.
Surrounding atmosphere
Q Q
Heat flow Heat flow
Hot soup
Cold
drink

Drink gets Soup gets

warmer cooler

Figure 2.7 Heat transfer to and from surroundings 24

A body left in a medium at a different temperature will
transfer energy between the body and the medium until
thermal equilibrium is reached, that is they reach the
same temperature. At this point the energy transfer
stops.
• Energy transfer is always from higher temperature to
the lower temperature
• Heat is energy that is transferred by virtue of
temperature difference.
• Like work , heat is energy in transition and therefore can
not be stored.
Heat No heat
Body A high transfer Body B low Body A transfer Body B
temperature Q temperature same Q same
hot cold temperature temperature

Thermal equilibrium
Figure 2.8. Heat transfer and thermal equilibrium 25
Heat is denoted by a symbol (Q), since it is in the form of
energy. Heat transfer per unit mass is often very
important in thermodynamics and it is denoted by the
symbol (q).
Q kJ
q
m kg
.
• Heat transfer rate, heat transfer per unit time, is
denoted by (Q ) where the raised dot means per unit
time. Heat transfer has a unit of kJ/s which is
equivalent to power measured in kilowatt (kW)
• Sensible heat - heat flow that change the temperature
• Latent heat - no change in temperature but rather a
change of phase (such as solid, liquid or gas)

26
The quantity of the sensible heat flow required is given
by

Q = mc (Th – Tc)
= mc [ (th + 273) – (tc + 273)]
= mc [ th – tc ] (2.7)
where Q = quantity of heat transferred (J)
m = mass of the substance (J/ kgK)
tc , Tc = coldest temperature (0C or 0 K)
th, Th = hottest temperature (0C or oK)

27
Example 2.7. In a heat treatment process , a cast iron
component with a mass of 40 kg is heated from 300C to
7000C in 7 minutes in a furnace. Calculate the heating
power of the furnace. Assume that the specific heat
capacity of cast iron is 0.5 kJ/kgK.
Solution:

.
From Equation 2.7, sensible heat flow required
Q = mc(Th – Tc)
kJ
= 40 x 0.5 x (700-30) kg K  kJ
kgK
= 13,400 kJ
This quantity of heat is transferred in time t = 7 minutes
= 7x60
= 420 s

28
Heating power of the furnace ,
.Q
Q
t
13400 kJ
  kW
420 s
 31.9 kW
Note: Heat is a form of energy in transition which flows
due to temperature difference

29
2.6 INTERNAL ENERGY
Symbol: U Unit: Joule (J)
• Energy that a fluid posses because of the microscopic
movement of the individual molecule of the fluid. At
temperature above absolute zero, the molecules are in
motion, and this motion can be linear, vibrational or
rotational.
Linear
motion
Rotational
Gas motion
molecules
Vibrational
motion

Figure 2.9 Molecular motion in gas

30
• The increase in temperature results to greater molecular
movement hence increase the internal energy.
• Specific internal energy (the internal energy of unit mass
is often more useful. For this the symbol used is (u) and
the unit is J/kg. The change in specific internal energy
during the process is of more importance than the
absolute values.
• Example of internal energy conversion is when a brake is
applied to stop a moving vehicle. The kinetic energy of
the vehicle is absorbed by the brake and converted to
internal energy, resulting a temperature increase of the
brake.

31
• In Figure 10a both the blocks have the same internal
energy but different external (potential) energy.
• In Figure 2.10b both the fluids have the same external
(kinetic) energy but different internal energy. The hotter
the fluid has more internal energy.
This block C2
has stored KE  m
potential
Same 2
energy temperature Velocity , C Fluid
Same U Hot water
mass, m

C2
KE  m
2
Same Velocity , C Fluid
Cold water
temperature mass, m
Same U Datum
level
a) Same internal energy but different b) Same external energy but different
external energy internal energy
Figure 2.10 Internal and external energy
32
2.6 CHEMICAL ENERGY
Symbol: none Unit: Joule (J)
• Energy of great interest to engineers, since energy is released
when burn in air. Figure 2.11, gas from a bottle is being mixed with
air and burn to produce heat for cooking

Heat Gas burns

in air Gas

Gas
bottle

Figure 2.11. Chemical energy from gas

32
Combustion process – the molecules of fuel combine with
m molecules of oxygen from air to form new
substances . The regrouping of the molecules results in
the increase in energy in the form of heat and this
cause the temperature of the resulting combustion
gases to increase.
• Calorific value –(C.V.) amount of heat liberated by
combustion of the fuel. Sometimes called energy
content, heating value.
• Usually expressed as the amount of energy produced
by the combustion of unit mass of fuel.
• For solids and liquid fuels , such as coal and petrol, the
unit usually used is kJ/kg
• For gaseous fuels like propane and natural gas , the
unit is kJ/m3

32
Example 2.8. A large hotel requires 1500 liters per hour of
hot water at a temperature of 900C . Water enters the
heater at a temperature of 250C and is heated by the
combustion fuel oil having a calorific value (C.V.) of
40,000 kJ/kg. If the fuel cost s =P1.02/kg, what is the
daily cost of fuel for the heating of water in the hotel?
Take the specific heat capacity of water as 4.19 kJ/kgK .
Solution:
Mass of water to be heated
m = vρ
1500 liter m3 kg kg
 x 1000 
1000 h liter m 3
h
 1500 kg/h
kg h kg
 1500 x 24 
h day day
 36 000 kg/day
24
The Equation 2.7. heat is required to be applied at the
rate of ,

. Q = m c (t – t )
h c
kg kJ kJ
= 36 000 x 4.19 x (90 – 25) K
day kgK day
= 9 805 kJ/day

This is achieved by burning fuel, and the rate of heat

release from the fuel, Q = mass of fuel burned per day x
C.V.

Q
Hence, the mass of fuel burned 
C.V.

36
 9 805 000 kJ kg kg
 
40 000 day kJ day
 245.1 kg/day

kg =P P=
Cost of fuel =245.1 x 1.02 
day kg day

= =P 250 per day

Chemical energy is a form of energy which is easily
stored and readily converted to another forms.
Example, aviation fuel is stored in the fuel tank of an
aircraft. The fuel burned in the engine resulting in a
steam of combustion gas which is discharge d from the
engine at high speed. The chemical energy of the fuel is
converted into potential and kinetic energy of the
aircraft. 37
2.8 NUCLEAR ENERGY
Symbol: none Unit: Joule (J)
• Tremendous amount of energy associated with the bonds between
the nucleons (protons and neutrons) which constitute the nucleus
of an atom.
• The energy is called nuclear energy (or sometimes atomic energy)
and released during certain nuclear reaction.
Types of reaction which liberate nuclear energy
1. Fission – nucleus is broken up to smaller nuclei
2. Fusion – smaller nuclei combine to form larger nucleus
2.8.1 Fission energy
• Commercially exploited in a number of developed countries
• Power generation plant of this type the fission of U235 , an isotope
of uranium is controlled inside a reactor vessel.

32
 Fission
fragment
Nucleus
Neutron v U235

Energy Free
release neutron
Neutron

Fission
fragment

Figure 2.12 Fission of Uranium

• energy release produces heat which is converted into electrical

energy
• The fission of one kg U235 produces 90x106 MJ of energy which is
about three million times than that obtained by chemical
combustion of one kg of coal
• Problem is disposing the resulting radioactive nuclear waste
materials – 1986 catastrophic in USSR (Chernobyl)
• Associated with atomic bomb

39
2.8.2 Fusion energy
• Occurs when smaller nuclei combine to form larger ones
• This produces the sun’s energy derived from fusion of hydrogen
atoms combine to form helium
• Such reaction requires about 100 million degree Celsius of
temperature
• Fusion of one kg of hydrogen calculated to produce 641x106MJ of
energy, combustion energy content of same mass of hydrogen is
only 144 MJ
• Fusion results is over four million times the energy obtained from
chemical combustion reaction
• Fusion would result in virtually no harmful radioactivity and,
surprisingly, very little harm in the event of malfunction

40
Example 2.9. A large nuclear power station needs a power input of
900 MW. Nuclear fission of one kg of uranium (U235) releases
90x106 MJ. Determine how much uranium is required to operate
the power station at full capacity for one day.
Solution:
Power input = 900 MW
= 900Mj/s
MJ kg kg
Uranium required = 900/90x106 s MJ

s
= 1 x 10-5 kg/s
Number of seconds in one day = 24 x 3600
= 86 400 s
Hence, uranium required = 1 x 10-5 x 86 400
= 0.864 kg/day

41
Example 2.10. Another power station with the same power input
Solution: as that in Example 2.9 burns heavy fuel with a combustion
energy content (C.V.) of 42.5 MJ/kg and the relative density of 0.9.
How many barrels of fuel oil are required to operate this power
station at full capacity for one day. (Note: The barrel is a unit of
volume commonly used in the industry and is equivalent to 164
liters)
Solution:
Power input = 900MW = 900MJ/s
Power, P = m C.V.
P 900 MJ kg kg
Mass of fuel oil required,m    21.18 kg/s 
C.V. 42.5 s MJ s

Number of seconds per day = 24 x 3600 = 86 400 s

kg
Mass of fuel oil required per day = 21.18 x 86 400 s  kg
s
= 1 830 000 kg
Relative density of oil = 0.97

42
 Relative density of oil = 0.97
Density of fuel oil = relative density x density of water
= 0.97 x 1000 kg/m3 = 970 kg/m3

1 830 000 m3
Volume of fuel oil required   1887 m3 kg  m3
970 kg

There are 1000 liters in one m3 and so

liter
Volume of fuel oil required = 1887 x 1000 m3 3
 liter
m
= 1887 x 103 liters
But 0ne barrel = 164 liters

3
Hence, fuel oil required 1887 x 10
 11500 barrels
164

43
Conversion of Nuclear energy
• In a fission reactor the energy which bonds the nucleons in the
uranium atoms is released in the form of heat.
• The fuel within the reactor core gets very hot and has to be
continuously cooled by the circulation of a fluid such as high
pressure water and passed through a heat exchanger where it gives
up its energy and produce steam.
• The steam is used to generate electricity.
Electrical
Turbine energy
Pressure
vessel Steam Work Generator
Hot
Heat coolant

Nuclear Heat
reactor exchanger
Condenser
core

Cool Water Feed

coolant pump
Coolant
pump

Figure 2.13. Typical fission-reactor power generation plant 44

2.9 ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Symbol: none Unit: Joule (J)
• In order for the energy to be transferred from one place to another
there must be a driving force, or a potential, which cause the
energy to move
• e.i. mechanical force which results in work transfer, and
temperature which results to heat transfer.
• Third is the electrical force which transfer electrical energy
• Electrical potential, or voltage, forces electrons to move along a
conducting path such us copper wire.
• Current – flow of electron, under the effect electromotive force
does work.
• electrical energy – electrical work.

45
 Electrical
Work energy

Turbine
Steam Generator

Steam
Heat
supply Boiler

Water Pump

Water

Figure 2.14 Steam power plant for generation of electricity

46
Example 2.11. An electric motor is used to drive a small water pump.
During the performance test, the torque on the motor shaft is
found to be 7.16 Nm when the motor is drawing 600 W of electrical
power. What is the rotational speed of the pump shaft?
600 W of electric
power

Motor Torque
Water
pump

7.6 Nm

Figure 2.1 Pump driven by an electric motor

Solution:
P = power supplied to the motor = 600W
From Equation 2.4
W = Tѳ

47
Dividing both sides of the equation by time (t)
W Tθ θ
  T  Tω
t t t
W
But P
t
Then P  Tω
Where ω = angular velocity in radians per second
Hence 600 = 7.16 ω 1
Nm  W
s
Solving gives ω = 83.8 rad/s
There are 2π in one revolution
83.8
Hence, rotational speed  W
2π
= 13.34 revolution per second
rev s rev
= 13.34 x 60 
s min min
= 800 rpm (revolution per minute)
Conclusion: The electrical energy supplied to the pump is converted
into mechanical energy at the pump shaft.

48
Example 2.12. A portable electric generator is driven by a small petrol
engine which uses 0.82 kg of fuel per hour. If 32% of the energy
input is converted to generate electricity, determine the electrical
power output. Assume that the calorific value (C.V.) of petrol is
43900 kJ/kg.
Solution:
.
Heat supplied to the engine = mfC.V.
kg h kJ
= 0.82 x 43 900 
h s s
= 36 000 kJ/h
36000 kJ h kJ
   kW
3600 hs s
 10 kW

If 32% of this energy is converted to electricity then,

Electrical power output = 10 x 0.32
= 3.2 kW
Conclusion: Some of the heat supplied to the engine driving the
generator is converted to electrical energy. The rest is wasted.
49
2.10 RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY
• In many developed countries most of the energy requirement is
generated from the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and
natural gas.
• Earth has vast reserves on these fuels but they are being used up at
an ever-increasing rate and must eventually become exhausted.
• Some scientist suggest that this could happen within the next
century.
• Focus on some alternative and renewable sources of energy.
• Advantage of these particular energy sources is their exploitation
results in a very little environmental damage, unlike that which
results from power generation by the combustion of fossil fuels.

50
2.10 .1 Solar energy
• Radiated from the sun and some of these reaches the Earth, but
the energy received is filtered by ozone, clouds and dust in the
atmosphere
• Received depends upon latitude, season and of course, the time of
the day
• The average incident solar power near the equator is 1000 Watts
per m2 of the Earth’s surface.
• Singapore for example, with an area of about 620 km2 could
potentially harness over 600,000 MW of solar power on a sunny
day.

51
2.10 .2 Wind energy
• Some of the solar energy received by the Earth is absorbed by the
atmosphere, resulting in heating the air.
• Causes local variation in both temperature and pressure within the
atmosphere and produces movement of air, or winds.
• Wind possesses kinetic energy which is converted from solar
energy.
• Energy can be tapped by windmills
• Useful supplies of electrical energy
• Energy storage using batteries is useful at some isolated areas

52
2.10 .3 Wave energy
• Ocean waves possess energy which can be converted to electrical
energy by utilizing the kinetic energy in wave motion to drive
electrical generator.
• Amount of power which can be generated depends on the size
and velocity of the waves and these vary depending on the location
and weather conditions.
• Significant electric power can be generated from wave energy but
there are mechanical difficulties which include destructive effects
of storms, and corrosiveness of sea water and accumulation of
marine life on the machinery surfaces.
• These problems can be overcome but the cost of power production
from wave energy is relatively uneconomical.

53
2.10 .4 Tidal energy
• The rhythmic rise and fall of the ocean tides results from
gravitational attraction between the Earth, the moon and the sun.
• Tidal flow is affected by the profile of the sea-bed and the
irregularities of the continental shorelines.
• Kinetic energy available from tidal flow can be used to drive
turbines and so produce electric energy.
• Tidal power can only contribute small percentage of the energy
needs of the world.

54
2.10 .5 Geothermal energy
• Possible because the Earth is hotter below the surface.
• Can be obtained from steam trapped underground that is brought
to the surface and use to drive turbines to produce electricity.
• Water can be heated by pumping it through deep hot rocks.
• Geothermal is still largely in the development stage, although in
some regions such as New Zealand, for example it is a major local
source of energy.

55