Tissues

An Introduction to Tissues
 Tissues
– Collections of specialized cells and cell products that
perform specific functions
– Tissues in combination form organs, such as the heart
or liver
– Histology is the study of tissues
1
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
4-1 Four Types of Tissue
 Four types of tissue
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nervous
2
 Epithelial tissue
– Covers exposed surfaces
– Lines internal passageways
– Forms glands
 Connective tissue
– Fills internal spaces
– Supports other tissues
– Transports materials
– Stores energy
3
 Muscle tissue
– Specialized for contraction
– Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and muscular walls of
hollow organs
 Nervous tissue
– Carries electrical signals from one part of the body to
another
4
Figure 4–1 An Orientation to the Body’s Tissues.
Secrete and regulate

EXTRACELLULAR
CELLS
MATERIAL AND FLUIDS
Combine to form
TISSUES
with special functions
EPITHELIAL TISSUE CONNECTIVE TISSUE MUSCLE TISSUE NERVOUS TISSUE

• Covers exposed • Fills internal • Contracts to • Propagates
surfaces spaces produce electrical
• Lines internal movement impulses
• Provides
passageways • Carries
structural
and chambers support information
• Produces • Stores
glandular energy
secretions
Combine to form
ORGANS
with multiple functions
Interact in
ORGAN SYSTEMS
5
4-2 Epithelial Tissue
 Epithelial tissue includes epithelia and glands
– Epithelia (singular, epithelium)
• Layers of cells covering internal or external surfaces
– Glands
• Structures that produce fluid secretions
6
 Functions of epithelial tissue
1. Provide physical protection
2. Control permeability
3. Provide sensation
4. Produce specialized secretions
7
 Characteristics of epithelia
– Polarity (apical and basal surfaces)
– Cellularity (cell junctions)
– Attachment (basement membrane)
– Avascularity (avascular)
– Regeneration
8
 Specializations of epithelial cells
1. Move fluids over the epithelium (protection)
2. Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability)
3. Produce secretions (protection and messaging)
 Polarity
– Apical surface
• Microvilli increase absorption or secretion
• Cilia on a ciliated epithelium move fluids
– Basolateral surface
9
Figure 4–2 The Polarity of Epithelial Cells.
Cilia
Microvilli
Apical surface
Lateral surfaces
Golgi
apparatus
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Basement membrane
Basal surface 10
 Integrity of epithelia is maintained by
1. Intercellular connections
2. Attachment to the basement membrane
3. Epithelial maintenance and repair
11
 Intercellular connections
– Support and communication
• Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)
– Transmembrane proteins
• Proteoglycans act as intercellular cement
– Contain glycosaminoglycans such as hyaluronan
(hyaluronic acid)
12
 Tight junctions
– Between two plasma membranes
– Adhesion belt attaches to terminal web
– Prevent passage of water and solutes
– Keep enzymes, acids, and wastes in the lumen of the
digestive tract
13
 Intercellular connections
– Cell junctions
• Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material
1. Gap junctions
2. Tight junctions
3. Desmosomes
14
 Gap junctions
– Allow rapid communication
– Cells held together by interlocking transmembrane
proteins (connexons)
– Allow small molecules and ions to pass
– Coordinate contractions in heart muscle
15
 Desmosomes
– CAMs and proteoglycans link opposing plasma
membranes
– Spot desmosomes
• Tie cells together
• Allow bending and twisting
– Hemidesmosomes
• Attach cells to the basement membrane
16
Figure 4–3a Cell Junctions.
Tight junction
Adhesion belt
Terminal web
Gap junctions
Spot desmosome
Hemidesmosome
a View of an epithelial cell,

showing the major types of
intercellular connections. 17
Figure 4–3b Cell Junctions.
Embedded
proteins
(connexons)
b Gap junctions permit the free

diffusion of ions and small
molecules between two cells. 18
Figure 4–3c Cell Junctions.
Interlocking
junctional
proteins
Tight
junction
Terminal web
Adhesion
belt
c A tight junction is formed by the fusion of

the outer layers of two plasma membranes.
Tight junctions prevent the diffusion of
fluids and solutes between the cells. A
continuous adhesion belt lies deep to the
tight junction. This belt is tied to the
19
microfilaments of the terminal web.
Figure 4–3d Cell Junctions.
Intermediate
filaments
Cell adhesion
molecules
(CAMs)
Dense area
Proteoglycans
d A spot desmosome ties

adjacent cells together.
20
Figure 4–3e Cell Junctions.
Basal
lamina
Basement
Reticular membrane
lamina
e Hemidesmosomes attach a cell

to extracellular structures, such
as the protein fibers in the
basement membrane.
21
 Attachment to the basement membrane
– Basal lamina
• Closest to the epithelium
– Reticular lamina
• Deeper portion of basement membrane
• Provides strength
22
 Epithelial maintenance and repair
– Epithelial cells are replaced by continual division of
stem cells
• Located near basement membrane
23
4-3 Classification of Epithelia
 Classification of epithelia
1. Based on shape
• Squamous—thin and flat
• Cuboidal—square shaped
• Columnar—tall, slender rectangles
2. Based on layers
• Simple epithelium—single layer of cells
• Stratified epithelium—several layers of cells
24
Table 4-1 Classifying Epithelia (Part 1 of 2)
25
Table 4-1 Classifying Epithelia (Part 2 of 2)
26
 Squamous epithelia
– Simple squamous epithelia
• Absorption and diffusion
• Mesothelium
– Lines body cavities
• Endothelium
– Forms inner lining of heart and blood vessels
– Stratified squamous epithelia
• Protect against mechanical stresses
• Keratin adds strength and water resistance
27
Figure 4–4a Squamous Epithelia.
a Simple Squamous Epithelium
LOCATIONS: Mesothelia
lining pleural, pericardial,
and peritoneal cavities; Cytoplasm
endothelia lining heart
and blood vessels; portions
of kidney tubules (thin Nucleus
sections of nephron loops);
inner lining of cornea;
alveoli of lungs
FUNCTIONS: Reduces
friction; controls vessel
permeability; performs Connective tissue LM × 238
absorption and secretion Lining of peritoneal cavity
28
Figure 4–4b Squamous Epithelia.
b Stratified Squamous Epithelium
LOCATIONS: Surface of
skin; lining of mouth, throat, Squamous
esophagus, rectum, anus, superficial cells
and vagina
FUNCTIONS: Provides physical
protection against abrasion,
Stem cells
pathogens, and chemical attack
Basement
membrane
Connective
tissue
Surface of tongue LM × 310
29
 Cuboidal epithelia
– Simple cuboidal epithelia
• Secretion and absorption
• Glands and portions of kidney tubules
– Stratified cuboidal epithelia
• Relatively rare
• Ducts of sweat glands and mammary glands
30
Figure 4–5a Cuboidal and Transitional Epithelia.
a Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

LOCATIONS: Glands; ducts;
portions of kidney tubules;
thyroid gland
FUNCTIONS: Limited protection, Connective
secretion, absorption tissue
Nucleus
Cuboidal
cells
Basement
membrane
Kidney tubule LM × 650
31
Figure 4–5b Cuboidal and Transitional Epithelia.
b Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

LOCATIONS: Lining of some ducts
(rare)
FUNCTIONS: Protection, secretion, Lumen
absorption of duct
Stratified
cuboidal cells
Basement
membrane
Nucleus
Connective
tissue
Sweat gland duct LM × 500
32
 Transitional epithelia
– Tolerate repeated cycles of stretching without damage
– Appearance changes as stretching occurs
– Found in urinary bladder
33
Figure 4–5c Cuboidal and Transitional Epithelia.
c Transitional Epithelium
LOCATIONS: Urinary
bladder; renal pelvis;
ureters
FUNCTIONS: Permits Epithelium
repeated cycles of (not stretched)
stretching without
damage
Basement membrane
Connective tissue and
Empty bladder smooth muscle layers LM × 400
Epithelium
(stretched)
Basement membrane
Connective tissue and
Full bladder smooth muscle layers LM × 400
Urinary bladder
34
 Columnar epithelia
– Simple columnar epithelia
• Absorption and secretion
• Found in stomach, small intestine, large intestine
– Pseudostratified columnar epithelia
• Typically have cilia
• Found in nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi
– Stratified columnar epithelia
• Relatively rare
• Provide protection in pharynx, anus, urethra
35
Figure 4–6a Columnar Epithelia.
a Simple Columnar Epithelium
LOCATIONS: Lining of
stomach, intestine, gallbladder, Microvilli
uterine tubes, and collecting
Cytoplasm
ducts of kidneys
FUNCTIONS:
Protection, Nucleus
secretion,
absorption
Basement
membrane
Loose
connective tissue LM × 350
Intestinal lining
36
Figure 4–6b Columnar Epithelia.
b Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

LOCATIONS: Lining of
nasal cavity, trachea, and Cilia
bronchi; portions of male
reproductive tract Cytoplasm
FUNCTIONS: Protection,
secretion, move mucus Nuclei
with cilia
Basement
membrane
Loose connective
tissue
Trachea LM × 350
37
Figure 4–6c Columnar Epithelia.
c Stratified Columnar Epithelium

LOCATIONS: Small areas of
the pharynx, epiglottis, anus, Loose
mammary glands, salivary connective tissue
gland ducts, and urethra Deeper cells
FUNCTION: Protection
Superficial
Lumen columnar cells
Lumen
Cytoplasm
Nuclei
Basement
Salivary gland duct membrane LM × 175
38
 Glandular epithelia
– Glands are collections of epithelial cells that produce
secretions
– Endocrine glands
• Release hormones that enter bloodstream
• No ducts
– Exocrine glands
• Produce exocrine secretions
• Discharge secretions through ducts onto epithelial
surfaces
39
 Methods of secretion
1. Merocrine
2. Apocrine
3. Holocrine
40
 Merocrine secretion
– Released by secretory vesicles (exocytosis)
– Example: merocrine sweat glands
 Apocrine secretion
– Released by shedding cytoplasm
– Example: mammary glands
41
 Holocrine secretion
– Released by cells bursting, killing gland cells
– Gland cells replaced by stem cells
– Example: sebaceous glands
42
Figure 4–8a Methods of Glandular Secretion.
a Merocrine secretion
In merocrine secretion, the product is released from secretory
vesicles at the apical surface of the gland cell by exocytosis.
Secretory
vesicle
Golgi
apparatus
Nucleus
TEM × 3039
Salivary gland
Mammary
gland
43
Figure 4–8b Methods of Glandular Secretion.
Salivary gland
b Apocrine secretion
Apocrine secretion involves the loss of apical cytoplasm.
Inclusions, secretory vesicles, and other cytoplasmic components
Mammary are shed in the process. The gland cell then grows and repairs
gland itself before it releases additional secretions.
Breaks
down
Golgi apparatus
Secretion Regrowth
1 2 3 4
44
Figure 4–8c Methods of Glandular Secretion.
Salivary gland
Mammary
gland
Hair
Sebaceous gland
Hair follicle c Holocrine secretion

Holocrine secretion occurs as superficial gland cells burst. Continued
secretion involves the replacement of these cells through the mitotic
divisions of underlying stem cells.
3 Cells burst, releasing
cytoplasmic contents
2 Cells form secretory

products and increase
in size
1 Cell division replaces

lost cells
Stem cell
45
 Types of secretions produced by exocrine glands
– Serous glands
• Watery secretions
– Mucous glands
• Secrete mucins
– Mixed exocrine glands
• Both serous and mucous
46
4-4 Connective Tissue
 Components of connective tissues
1. Specialized cells
2. Extracellular protein fibers
3. Fluid called ground substance
 Matrix consists of extracellular components of connective
tissue (fibers and ground substance)
– Majority of tissue volume
– Determines specialized function
47
 Functions of connective tissues
– Establishing a structural framework for the body
– Transporting fluids and dissolved materials
– Protecting delicate organs
– Supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting other
types of tissue
– Storing energy reserves, especially triglycerides
– Defending the body from invading microorganisms
48
 Categories of connective tissues
1. Connective tissue proper
• Connect and protect
2. Fluid connective tissues
• Transport
3. Supporting connective tissues
• Structural strength
49
4-5 Connective Tissue Proper
 Categories of connective tissue proper
– Loose connective tissue
• More ground substance, fewer fibers
• Example: fat (adipose tissue)
– Dense connective tissue
• More fibers, less ground substance
• Example: tendons
50
 Cells of connective tissue proper
– Fibroblasts
– Fibrocytes
– Adipocytes
– Mesenchymal cells
– Melanocytes
– Macrophages
– Mast cells
– Lymphocytes
– Microphages
51
 Fibroblasts
– The most abundant cell type
– Found in all types of connective tissue proper
– Secrete proteins and hyaluronan (cellular cement)
 Fibrocytes
– Second most abundant cell type
– Maintain connective tissue fibers
52
 Adipocytes
– Fat cells
– Each cell stores a single, large fat droplet
 Mesenchymal cells
– Stem cells that respond to injury or infection
– Differentiate into fibroblasts, macrophages, etc.
 Melanocytes
– Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin
53
 Macrophages
– Large phagocytic cells of the immune system
– Engulf pathogens and damaged cells
– Fixed macrophages stay in tissue
– Free macrophages migrate
 Mast cells
– Stimulate inflammation after injury or infection
• Release histamine and heparin
– Basophils are leukocytes that also contain histamine
and heparin
54
 Lymphocytes
– Migrate throughout the body
– May develop into plasma cells, which produce
antibodies
 Microphages
– Phagocytic blood cells (neutrophils, eosinophils)
– Attracted to signals from macrophages and mast cells
55
 Connective tissue fibers
1. Collagen fibers
2. Reticular fibers
3. Elastic fibers
56
 Collagen fibers
– Most common fibers in connective tissue proper
– Long, straight, and unbranched
– Strong and flexible
– Resist force in one direction
– Abundant in tendons and ligaments
57
 Reticular fibers
– Form a network of interwoven fibers (stroma)
– Strong and flexible
– Resist forces in many directions
– Stabilize functional cells (parenchyma) and structures
– Example: sheaths around organs
58
 Elastic fibers
– Contain elastin
– Branched and wavy
– Return to original length after stretching
– Example: elastic ligaments of vertebrae
59
Figure 4–9 The Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper.
Reticular
fibers Mast cell
Melanocyte
Elastic
Fixed fibers
macrophage
Plasma cell Free

macrophage
Collagen
fibers
Blood
in vessel Fibroblast
Fibrocyte
Mesenchymal
Adipocytes cell
(fat cells)
Ground Lymphocyte
substance
60
 Ground substance
– Is clear, colorless, and viscous
– Fills spaces between cells and slows pathogen
movement
 Loose connective tissues
– “Packing materials”
– Fill spaces between organs, cushion cells, and support
epithelia
61
 Embryonic connective tissues
– Not found in adults
– Mesenchyme (embryonic connective tissue)
• First connective tissue in embryos
– Mucous connective tissue
• Loose embryonic connective tissue
62
Figure 4–10a Embryonic Connective Tissues.
Blood vessel
Mesenchymal
cells
Mesenchyme LM × 136
a This is the first connective tissue to appear

in an embryo. 63
Figure 4–10b Embryonic Connective Tissues.
Blood vessel
Mesenchymal
cells
Mucous connective tissue LM × 136

(Wharton’s jelly)
b This sample was taken from the umbilical

cord of a fetus. 64
 Types of loose connective tissues in adults
1. Areolar tissue
2. Adipose tissue
3. Reticular tissue
65
 Areolar tissue
– Least specialized
– Open framework
– Viscous ground substance
– Elastic fibers
– Holds capillary beds
• Example: under skin (subcutaneous layer)
66
Figure 4–11a Loose Connective Tissues.
a Areolar Tissue
LOCATIONS: Within and deep to the
dermis of skin, and covered by the
epithelial lining of the digestive,
respiratory, and urinary tracts; Fibrocytes
between muscles; around joints,
blood vessels, and nerves Macrophage
Collagen
FUNCTIONS: Cushions organs; provides fibers
support but permits independent
movement; phagocytic Mast cell
cells provide defense
against pathogens Areolar Elastic fibers
tissue
from
LM × 380
pleura Areolar tissue
67
 Adipose tissue
– Contains many adipocytes (fat cells)
• Adipocytes in adults do not divide
– Expand to store fat
– Shrink as fats are released
• Mesenchymal cells divide and differentiate
– To produce more fat cells
– When more storage is needed
– May be removed (temporarily) via liposuction in
cosmetic surgery
68
 White fat
– Most common
– Stores fat and absorbs shocks
– Slows heat loss (insulation)
 Brown fat
– Found in babies and young children
– More vascularized
– Adipocytes have many mitochondria
– Breakdown of lipids releases energy and warms body
69
Figure 4–11b Loose Connective Tissues.
b Adipose Tissue
LOCATIONS: Deep to the skin,
especially at sides, buttocks,
and breasts; padding around
eyes and kidneys
FUNCTIONS: Provides
padding and cushions Adipocytes
shocks; insulates (white adipose
(reduces heat loss); cells)
stores energy
LM × 300
Adipose tissue
70
 Reticular tissue
– Provides support
– Reticular fibers form a complex, three-dimensional
stroma
– Support functional cells of organs
– Found in liver, kidney, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone
marrow
71
Figure 4–11c Loose Connective Tissues.
c Reticular Tissue
LOCATIONS: Liver, kidney, spleen,
lymph nodes, and bone marrow
FUNCTIONS: Provides supporting

framework
Reticular
fibers
Reticular tissue
from liver LM × 230
Reticular tissue
72
 Dense connective tissues
– Also called collagenous tissues
• Contain many collagen fibers
– Three types of dense connective tissues
• Dense regular
• Dense irregular
• Elastic
73
 Dense regular connective tissue
– Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers
• Tendons attach muscles to bones
• Ligaments connect one bone to another and
stabilize organs
• Aponeuroses are tendinous sheets that attach a
broad, flat muscle to another structure
74
Figure 4–12a Dense Connective Tissues.
a Dense Regular Connective Tissue

LOCATIONS: Between skeletal
muscles and skeleton (tendons
and aponeuroses); between
bones or stabilizing positions
Collagen
of internal organs (ligaments);
fibers
covering skeletal muscles;
deep fasciae
FUNCTIONS: Provides
firm attachment; conducts Fibroblast
pull of muscles; reduces nuclei
friction between muscles;
stabilizes positions
of bones Tendon LM × 440
75
 Dense irregular connective tissue
– Interwoven network of collagen fibers
• Provides strength to dermis
• Forms sheath around cartilages (perichondrium)
and bones (periosteum)
• Forms capsules around some organs (e.g., liver,
kidneys, and spleen)
76
Figure 4–12b Dense Connective Tissues.
b Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

LOCATIONS: Capsules of
visceral organs; periostea
and perichondria; nerve
and muscle sheaths; dermis
FUNCTIONS: Provides
strength to resist forces Collagen
from many directions; fiber
helps prevent bundles
overexpansion of
organs, such as
the urinary bladder
Deep dermis LM × 111
77
 Elastic tissue
– Made of elastic fibers
• Example: elastic ligaments of spinal vertebrae
78
Figure 4–12c Dense Connective Tissues.
c Elastic Tissue
LOCATIONS: Between vertebrae

of the spinal column (ligamenta
flava and ligamentum nuchae);
ligaments supporting penis;
ligaments supporting transitional Elastic
epithelia; in blood vessel walls fibers
FUNCTIONS: Stabilizes
positions of vertebrae and
Fibroblast
penis; cushions shocks;
nuclei
permits expansion and
contraction of organs
Elastic ligament LM × 887
79
 Connective tissues
1. Provide strength and stability
2. Maintain positions of internal organs
3. Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels,
and nerves
 Fasciae (singular, fascia)
– Connective tissue layers and wrappings that support
and surround organs
80
 Three layers of fasciae
1. Superficial fascia
• Separates skin from underlying tissues
2. Deep fascia
• Sheets of dense regular connective tissue
3. Subserous fascia
• Lies between deep fascia and serous membranes
that line body cavities
81
Figure 4–13 The Fasciae.
Body wall
Connective Tissue Framework of Body
Body cavity Superficial Fascia

• Between skin and
underlying organs
• Areolar tissue and adipose
tissue
• Also known as
subcutaneous layer
or hypodermis
Skin
Deep Fascia
• Bound to capsules, tendons,
and ligaments
• Dense connective tissue
• Forms a strong, fibrous
internal framework
Subserous Fascia
• Between serous membranes
and deep fascia
• Areolar tissue
Rib
Serous membrane
Cutaneous membrane
82
4-6 Blood and Lymph
 Fluid connective tissues include blood and lymph
 Blood
– Contains a watery matrix called plasma
– Contains cells and cell fragments, collectively known as
formed elements
• Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
• White blood cells (leukocytes)
• Platelets
83
Figure 4–14 Formed Elements in the Blood (Part 1 of 3).
Red blood cells

Red blood cells, or
erythrocytes (e-RITH-rō-sīts),
transport oxygen (and, to a
lesser degree, carbon
dioxide) in the blood.
Red blood cells lack a

nucleus. They account
for about half the volume
of whole blood and give
blood its color.
84
White blood cells

White blood cells, or leukocytes (LŪ-kō-sīts;
leuko-, white), are nucleated cells, which defend
the body from infection and disease. Neutrophil
Eosinophil Basophil
Monocytes Lymphocytes are un- Eosinophils and neutrophils

are phagocytes common in the blood but are phagocytes (microphages).
similar to the they are the dominant cell Basophils promote inflamma-
free macro- type in lymph, the second tion much like mast cells in
phages in type of fluid connective other connective tissues.
other tissues. tissue.
85
Platelets
Platelets are membrane-
enclosed packets of
cytoplasm that function
in blood clotting.
These cell fragments are

involved in the clotting
response that seals
leaks in damaged or
broken blood vessels.
86
4-6 Blood and Lymph
 Lymph
– Forms as interstitial fluid that enters lymphatic vessels
– Monitored by immune system
– Returned to veins near the heart
87
4-7 Supporting Connective Tissues
 Supporting connective tissues include cartilage and bone
 Cartilage
– Provides shock absorption and protection
– Matrix is a firm gel
• Contains polysaccharide derivatives called
chondroitin sulfates
– Cells in the matrix are chondrocytes
• In chambers called lacunae
88
 Cartilage structure
– Avascular
• Chondrocytes produce antiangiogenesis factor that
discourages formation of blood vessels
– Perichondrium
• Outer, fibrous layer (for support and protection)
• Inner, cellular layer (for growth and maintenance)
89
 Types of cartilage
1. Hyaline cartilage
2. Elastic cartilage
3. Fibrocartilage
90
 Hyaline cartilage
– Most common type
– Tough and somewhat flexible
– Reduces friction between bones
– Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and trachea
 Elastic cartilage
– Supportive but bends easily
– Found in external ear and epiglottis
91
 Fibrocartilage
– Very durable and tough
– Limits movement
– Prevents bone-to-bone contact
– Found around joints, between pubic bones, and
between spinal vertebrae
92
Figure 4–15a Types of Cartilage.
a Hyaline Cartilage
LOCATIONS: Between tips of ribs

and bones of sternum; covering
bone surfaces at synovial joints;
supporting larynx (voice box),
trachea, and bronchi; forming part
of nasal septum
Chondrocytes
FUNCTIONS: Provides stiff in lacunae
but somewhat flexible
support; reduces
friction between Matrix
bony surfaces
LM × 500
Hyaline cartilage
93
Figure 4–15b Types of Cartilage.
b Elastic Cartilage
LOCATIONS: Auricle of external

ear; epiglottis; auditory canal;
cuneiform cartilages of larynx
FUNCTIONS: Provides support, Chondrocytes

but tolerates in lacunae
distortion
without
damage and
returns
to original Elastic fibers
shape in matrix
LM × 358
Elastic cartilage
94
Figure 4–15c Types of Cartilage.
c Fibrocartilage
LOCATIONS: Pads within knee

joint; between pubic bones of
pelvis; intervertebral discs
FUNCTIONS:
Resists
compression; Chondrocytes
prevents bone- in lacunae
to-bone contact;
limits movement
Fibrous
matrix
LM × 400
Fibrocartilage
95
 Cartilage growth
– Interstitial growth
• Enlarges cartilage from within
– Appositional growth
• Growth at outer surface of cartilage
96
Figure 4–16a The Growth of Cartilage.
a Interstitial growth
Matrix
New matrix
Chondrocyte
Lacuna
Chondrocyte undergoes division

within a lacuna surrounded by As daughter cells secrete additional matrix, they
cartilage matrix. move apart, expanding the cartilage from within.
97
Figure 4–16b The Growth of Cartilage.
b Appositional growth
Fibrous layer
Fibroblast
Dividing stem cell
Perichondrium New matrix
Chondroblasts Immature
chondrocyte
Older matrix
Mature chondrocyte
Cells of the inner layer of These immature chondroblasts As the matrix enlarges, more chondroblasts
the perichondrium differentiate secrete new matrix. are incorporated; they are replaced by stem
into chondroblasts. cell divisions in the perichondrium.
98
 Bone (osseous tissue)
– For weight support
– Calcified (made rigid by calcium salts)
– Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers)
– Osteocytes (bone cells) lie in lacunae
• Arranged around central canals within matrix
• Small channels through matrix (canaliculi) allow for
exchange of materials with blood
– Periosteum covers bone
• Fibrous (outer) and cellular (inner) layers
99
Figure 4–17 Bone.
Canaliculi
Periosteum
Osteocytes
Fibrous layer
in lacunae
Matrix Cellular layer
Osteon
Central canal
Blood vessels
Osteon LM × 375
100
4-8 Tissue Membranes
 Tissue membranes
– Physical barriers
– Line or cover body surfaces
– Consist of an epithelium supported by connective
tissue
101
 Four types of tissue membranes
1. Mucous membranes
2. Serous membranes
3. Cutaneous membrane
4. Synovial membranes
102
 Mucous membranes (mucosae)
– Line passageways that have external connections
– In digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts
– Epithelial surfaces must be moist
• To reduce friction
• To facilitate absorption or secretion
– Lamina propria is areolar tissue in mucous
membranes
103
Figure 4–18a Types of Membranes.
Mucous secretion
Epithelium
Lamina propria
(areolar tissue)
a Mucous membranes are coated with the

secretions of mucous glands. These
membranes line most of the digestive and
respiratory tracts and portions of the
urinary and reproductive tracts.
104
 Serous membranes
– Line cavities that do not open to the outside
– Thin but strong
– Parietal portion lines inner surface of cavity
– Visceral portion (serosa) covers the organs
– Serous fluid reduces friction
105
 Serous membranes
1. Peritoneum
• Lines peritoneal cavity
• Covers abdominal organs
2. Pleura
• Lines pleural cavities
• Covers lungs
3. Pericardium
• Lines pericardial cavity
• Covers heart
106
Figure 4–18b Types of Membranes.
Serous fluid
Mesothelium
Areolar connective
tissue
b Serous membranes line the peritoneal,
pleural, and pericardial cavities.
107
 Cutaneous membrane
– Skin that covers the body
– Thick, relatively waterproof, and usually dry
 Synovial membranes
– Line synovial joint cavities
– Movement stimulates production of synovial fluid for
lubrication
– Lack a true epithelium
108
Figure 4–18c Types of Membranes.
Epithelium
Areolar connective
tissue
Dense irregular
connective tissue
c The cutaneous membrane, or skin, covers
the outer surface of the body.
109
Figure 4–18d Types of Membranes.
Articular (hyaline)
cartilage
Synovial ﬂuid
Capsule
Capillary
Adipocytes
Synovial
membrane
Areolar tissue
Epithelium
Bone
d Synovial membranes line joint cavities and
produce the synovial ﬂuid within the joint.
110
4-9 Muscle Tissue
 Muscle tissue
– Specialized for contraction
– Three types of muscle tissue
1. Skeletal muscle
– Large muscles responsible for body movement
2. Cardiac muscle
– Found only in the heart
3. Smooth muscle
– Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs
111
4-9 Muscle Tissue
 Skeletal muscle tissue
– Consists of long, thin cells called muscle fibers
– Cells do not divide
– New fibers are produced by divisions of myosatellite
cells
– Striated voluntary muscle
112
Figure 4–19a Types of Muscle Tissue.
a Skeletal Muscle Tissue
Cells are long, cylindrical,

striated, and multinucleate.
LOCATIONS: Combined Striations
with connective tissues
and neural tissue in Nuclei
skeletal muscles
FUNCTIONS: Moves or
stabilizes the position of
the skeleton; guards Muscle
entrances and exits to the fiber
digestive, respiratory, and
urinary tracts; generates
heat; protects internal
organs LM × 180
Skeletal muscle
113
4-9 Muscle Tissue
 Cardiac muscle tissue
– Cells form branching networks connected at
intercalated discs
– Regulated by pacemaker cells
– Striated involuntary muscle
 Smooth muscle tissue
– Cells are small and spindle shaped
• Can divide and regenerate
– Nonstriated involuntary muscle
114
Figure 4–19b Types of Muscle Tissue.
b Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Cells are short, branched, Nuclei

and striated, usually with a
single nucleus; cells are
interconnected by Cardiac
intercalated discs. muscle
LOCATION: Heart cells
FUNCTIONS: Circulates Intercalated

blood; maintains discs
blood pressure
Striations
LM × 450
Cardiac muscle
115
Figure 4–19c Types of Muscle Tissue.
c Smooth Muscle Tissue
Cells are short, spindle

shaped, and nonstriated,
with a single, central
nucleus.
LOCATIONS: Found in Nuclei
the walls of blood vessels
and in digestive, respiratory,
urinary, and reproductive organs
FUNCTIONS: Moves food,
urine, and reproductive Smooth
tract secretions; controls muscle
diameter of respiratory cells
passageways; regulates
diameter of blood vessels Smooth muscle LM × 235
116
4-10 Nervous Tissue
 Nervous tissue
– Specialized for conducting electrical impulses
– Concentrated in the brain and spinal cord
 Types of cells in nervous tissue
1. Neurons
2. Neuroglia (supporting cells)
117
4-10 Nervous Tissue
 Parts of a neuron
– Cell body
• Contains the nucleus and nucleolus
– Dendrites
• Short branches extending from the cell body
• Receive incoming signals
– Axon (nerve fiber)
• Long, thin extension of the cell body
• Carries outgoing electrical signals to their
destination
118
Figure 4–20 Nervous Tissue (Part 1 of 3).
Nuclei of neuroglia
Cell body
Axon
Dendrites Nucleolus
Nucleus
LM × 600
119
NEUROGLIA (supporting cells)
• Maintain physical structure

of tissues
• Repair tissue framework
after injury
• Perform phagocytosis
• Provide nutrients to neurons
• Regulate the composition of the
interstitial fluid surrounding neurons
120
Dendrites
(contacted
by other Contact with
Axon (conducts other cells
neurons) Microfibrils and information to
microtubules other cells)
Cell body
(contains
nucleus
and major
organelles)
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Mitochondrion
A representative neuron
(sizes and shapes vary widely)
121
4-11 Tissue Injuries and Repair
 Tissues respond to injury in two stages
1. Inflammation (inflammatory response)
2. Regeneration to restore normal function
122
 Inflammatory response
– Can be triggered by
• Trauma (physical injury)
• Infection (the presence of pathogens)
– Damaged cells release prostaglandins, proteins, and
potassium ions
– Damaged connective tissue activates mast cells
123
 Process of inflammation
– Lysosomes release enzymes that destroy the injured
cells and attack surrounding tissues
– Tissue destruction is called necrosis
• Begins several hours after injury
 Necrotic tissues and cellular debris (pus) accumulate in
the wound
– Abscess—pus trapped in an enclosed area
124
 The ability to regenerate varies among tissues
– Epithelia, connective tissues (except cartilage), and
smooth muscle regenerate well
– Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and nervous tissues
regenerate poorly, if at all
– Damaged cardiac muscle cells are replaced by fibrous
tissue through fibrosis
125
Figure 4–21 Inflammation and Regeneration (Part 1 of 5).
Mast Cell Activation

When an injury damages connective
tissue, mast cells release a variety of
chemicals. This process, called mast cell Mast cell
activation, stimulates inflammation.
Histamine
stimulates
Exposure to Pathogens and Toxins

Injured tissue contains an abnormal
concentration of pathogens, toxins,
wastes, and the chemicals from
injured cells.
When a tissue is injured,

a general defense
mechanism is
activated.
126
Mast Cell Activation

When an injury damages connective tissue,
mast cells release a variety of chemicals.
This process, called mast cell Mast cell
activation, stimulates inflammation.
Histamine
Heparin
Prostaglandins
INFLAMMATION
Inflammation produces several familiar indications of injury. These indications
are the so-called cardinal signs of inflammation: redness, heat (warmth), swelling,
pain, and sometimes loss of function. Inflammation may also result from the
presence of pathogens, such as harmful bacteria, within the tissues. The presence
of these pathogens constitutes an infection.
Increased Blood Flow Increased Vessel Permeability Pain
In response to the Vessel dilation is accompanied by The abnormal conditions

released chemicals, an increase in the permeability of within the tissue and the
blood vessels dilate, the capillary walls. Plasma now chemicals released by mast
increasing blood flow diffuses into the injured tissue, so cells stimulate nerve
through the damaged the area becomes swollen. endings that produce the
tissue. sensation of pain.
PAIN
127
INFLAMMATION
Inflammation produces several familiar indications of injury. These indications
are the so-called cardinal signs of inflammation: redness, heat (warmth), swelling,
pain, and sometimes loss of function. Inflammation may also result from the
presence of pathogens, such as harmful bacteria, within the tissues. The presence
of these pathogens constitutes an infection.
Increased Blood Flow Increased Vessel Permeability Pain
In response to the Vessel dilation is accompanied by The abnormal conditions

released chemicals, an increase in the permeability of within the tissue and the
blood vessels dilate, the capillary walls. Plasma now chemicals released by
increasing blood flow diffuses into the injured tissue, so mast cells stimulate nerve
through the damaged the area becomes swollen. endings that produce the
tissue. sensation of pain.
PAIN
Increased Local Increased Oxygen Increased Removal of Toxins

Temperature and Nutrients Phagocytosis and Wastes
The increased Vessel dilation, Phagocytes in Enhanced circulation

blood flow and increased blood the tissue are carries away toxins and
permeability flow, and increased activated, and wastes, distributing
cause the tissue vessel permeability they begin them to the kidneys for
to become warm result in enhanced engulfing tissue excretion, or to the liver
and red. delivery of oxygen debris and for inactivation.
and nutrients. pathogens.
O2 Toxins
and wastes
128
4-12 Aging, Regeneration, and Cancer
 Aging and tissue structure
– Speed and effectiveness of tissue regeneration
decrease with age, due to
• Slowing of repair and maintenance activities
• Hormonal alterations
• Reduced physical activity
129
 Effects of aging
– Chemical and structural tissue changes
• Thinner epithelia
• Fragile connective tissues
• Increased bruising
• Brittle bones
• Cardiovascular disease
• Mental deterioration
130
 Aging and cancer incidence
– Cancer rates increase with age
• Twenty-five percent of all people in the United
States develop cancer
• Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the
United States
• Most cancers are caused by chemical exposure or
environmental factors
– Forty percent of cases are caused by cigarette
smoke
131

Tissues

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Tissues

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An Introduction to Tissues

Secrete and regulate

EPITHELIAL TISSUE CONNECTIVE TISSUE MUSCLE TISSUE NERVOUS TISSUE

a View of an epithelial cell,

b Gap junctions permit the free

c A tight junction is formed by the fusion of

d A spot desmosome ties

e Hemidesmosomes attach a cell

a Simple Squamous Epithelium

b Stratified Squamous Epithelium

a Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

b Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

a Simple Columnar Epithelium

b Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

c Stratified Columnar Epithelium

Hair follicle c Holocrine secretion

2 Cells form secretory

1 Cell division replaces

Plasma cell Free

a This is the first connective tissue to appear

Mucous connective tissue LM × 136

b This sample was taken from the umbilical

FUNCTIONS: Provides supporting

a Dense Regular Connective Tissue

b Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Deep dermis LM × 111

LOCATIONS: Between vertebrae

Elastic ligament LM × 887

Body cavity Superficial Fascia

Red blood cells

Red blood cells lack a

White blood cells

Monocytes Lymphocytes are un- Eosinophils and neutrophils

These cell fragments are

LOCATIONS: Between tips of ribs

LOCATIONS: Auricle of external

FUNCTIONS: Provides support, Chondrocytes

LOCATIONS: Pads within knee

Chondrocyte undergoes division

Perichondrium New matrix

a Mucous membranes are coated with the

a Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Cells are long, cylindrical,

b Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Cells are short, branched, Nuclei

FUNCTIONS: Circulates Intercalated

c Smooth Muscle Tissue

Cells are short, spindle

NEUROGLIA (supporting cells)

• Maintain physical structure

Mast Cell Activation

Exposure to Pathogens and Toxins

When a tissue is injured,

Mast Cell Activation

Increased Blood Flow Increased Vessel Permeability Pain

In response to the Vessel dilation is accompanied by The abnormal conditions

Increased Blood Flow Increased Vessel Permeability Pain

In response to the Vessel dilation is accompanied by The abnormal conditions

Increased Local Increased Oxygen Increased Removal of Toxins

The increased Vessel dilation, Phagocytes in Enhanced circulation

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