Principles of Stratigraphy (GLY 409)

Correlation

Image showing fossils that connect the continents of Gondwana (the southern continents
of Pangea). Wegener used correlation to help develop the idea of continental drift.
Principles of Stratigraphy (GLY 409)
Correlation

Correlation of strata between

two localities on the Colorado
Plateau on the basis of similar
lithology of distinctive
stratigraphic units
 Principles of Stratigraphy
Geological Time Scale

Geological Time Scale is a calendar of the development of the Earth since its
creation. Geologists have subdivided it into a series of divisions. Eon is the largest
division of time, followed by era, period, epoch, and age. The
subdivisions/partitions of the geologic time scale are the same everywhere on
Earth; though, rocks may or may not be present at a given location depending on
the geologic activity going on during a particular period of time. Therefore, we
have the concept of time vs. rock, in which time is an unbroken continuum but
rocks may be missing and/or unavailable for study. The figure of the geologic time
scale represents time flowing continuously from the beginning of the Earth, with
the time units presented in an unbroken sequence. But that does not mean there
are rocks available for study for all of these time units.
 Principles of Stratigraphy

Geologic time on Earth, represented circularly, to show the individual time

divisions and important events. Ga=billion years ago, Ma=million years ago.
 Principles of Stratigraphy

Geologic Time Scale with

ages shown in millions of
years ago (Ma).
 Principles of Stratigraphy
Age Dating
Relative Age Dating
Relative age dating has to do with determining the temporal ordering of
events in Earth's past. Geologists employ a handful of simple principles in
relative age dating; two of the most important of these are the principles
of superposition and cross-cutting relationships. A third key principle--
faunal succession

Absolute Age Dating

Absolute age dating deals with assigning actual dates (in years before the
present) to rocks or geological events. Contrast this with relative age dating,
which instead is concerned with determining the orders of events in Earth's
past. The science of absolute age dating is known as geochronology and the
fundamental method of geochronology is called radiometric dating.
 Principles of Stratigraphy
Radiometric Dating

Hypotheses of absolute ages of rocks (as well as the events that they represent) are
determined from rates of radioactive decay of some isotopes of elements that occur
naturally in rocks.

Elements and isotopes

In chemistry, an element is a particular kind of atom that is defined by the number of
protons that it has in its nucleus. The number of protons equals the element's atomic
number. Carbon's (C) atomic number is 6 because it has six protons in its nucleus;
gold's (Au) atomic number is 79 because it has 79 protons in its nucleus.
 Principles of Stratigraphy
Radiometric Dating

Even though individual elements always have the same number of protons, the
number of neutrons in their nuclei sometimes varies. These variations are called
isotopes. Isotopes of individual elements are defined by their mass number, which is
simply the number of protons + the number of neutrons.

Consider, for example, the three different isotopes of Carbon:

Carbon-12: 6 protons, 6 neutrons

Carbon-13: 6 protons, 7 neutrons
Carbon-14: 6 protons, 8 neutrons

Most isotopes are stable, meaning that they do not change. Some isotopes are
unstable, however, and undergo radioactive decay.
 Principles of Stratigraphy (GLY 409)
Radiometric Dating

Radioactive decay
Radioactive decay involves unstable isotopes shedding energy in the form of
radiation, causing their numbers of protons and neutrons to change, in turn
resulting in one element changing into another.

The atomic nucleus that undergoes radioactive decay is the parent and the
resulting product the daughter product (or, decay product).

The rate at which a particular parent isotope decays into its daughter product is
constant. This rate is determined in a laboratory setting and is typically represented
by its half-life. A half-life is the amount of time needed for half of the parent atoms
in a sample to be changed into daughter products. This is illustrated in the chart
below.
 Principles of Stratigraphy

Relationship between the amount of radioactive parent atoms in a sample

relative to the number of daughter atoms over the passage of time,
measured in half-lives. Source:
https://www.digitalatlasofancientlife.org/learn/geological-time/absolute-age-
dating/
 Principles of Stratigraphy
Radiometric Dating

At the start time (zero half-lives passed), the sample consists of 100% parent atoms
(blue diamonds); there are no daughter products (red squares) because no time has
passed.

After the passage of one half-life, 50% of the parent atoms have become daughter
products.

After two half-lives, 75% of the original parent atoms have been transformed into
daughter products (thus, only 25% of the original parent atoms remain).

After three half-lives, only 12.5% of the original parent atoms remain. As more half-
lives pass, the number of parent atoms remaining approaches zero.
 Principles of Stratigraphy (GLY 409)
Based on this principle, geologists can count the number of parent atoms relative to daughter
products in a sample to determine how many half-lives have passed since a mineral grain first
formed. Consider the example shown below.

An example of how the initial number of radioactive parent atoms (blue diamonds) in two mineral grains
(gray hexagons) changes over time (measured in half-lives) relative to the number of daughter products
(red squares). Source: https://www.digitalatlasofancientlife.org/learn/geological-time/absolute-age-dating /
 Principles of Stratigraphy
Radiometric Dating
Calculating radiometric dates
By counting the numbers of parent atoms remaining in a sample relative to the
number originally present, it is possible to determine the number of half-lives that
have passed since the initial formation of a mineral grain (that is, when it became a
"closed system" that prevented parent and daughter atoms from escaping). You might
be wondering how it is possible to know the number of parent atoms that were
originally in a sample. This number is attained by simply adding the number of parent
and daughter atoms currently in the sample (because each daughter atom was once a
parent atom).
The next step in radiometric dating involves converting the number of half-lives that
have passed into an absolute (i.e., actual) age. This is done by multiplying the number
of half-lives that have passed by the half-life decay constant of the parent atom (again,
this value is determined in a laboratory).

To summarize, the key piece of information that needs to be determined from a

mineral specimen in order to determine its absolute age is its age in number of half
lives.

This can be mathematically determined by solving for y in this equation:

 Principles of Stratigraphy
Radiometric Dating
Np / N0 = (1 - λ)y
where Np = the number of parent atoms currently in the sample, N0 = number of parent
atoms present in the sample when the system became closed (so, N0 = Np + Nd,
where Nd = the number of daughter atoms currently in the sample), λ = the decay
constant, which for half-life is 0.5, and y = the number of half-lives that have passed.
Let's work through a hypothetical example problem. Suppose you analyzed a mineral
sample and found that it contained 33,278 parent atoms and 14,382 daughter atoms.
Further, suppose that the half-life of the parent atom is 2.7 million years. How old is the
mineral sample?
First, we know that: Np = 33,278; N0 = Np + Nd = 33,278 + 14,382 = 47,660; and
that λ = 0.5. So,
Np / N0 = (1 - λ)y
33,278 / 47,660 = (1 - 0.5)y
0.698 = 0.5y
log 0.698 = y * log 0.5
log 0.698 / log 0.5 = y
-0.156 / -0.301 = y
y = 0.518
 Principles of Stratigraphy
Radiometric Dating
So, we conclude that 0.518 half-lives have passed since the formation of this mineral
sample. To determine the absolute age of this mineral sample, we simply multiply y
(=0.518) times the half life of the parent atom (=2.7 million years).

Thus, the absolute age of sample = y * half-life = 0.518 * 2.7 million years = 1.40
million years.
 Principles of Stratigraphy
Radiometric Dating
As noted above, a radiometric date tells us when a system became closed, for
example when a mineral containing radioactive parent elements first crystalized. An
individual mineral grain may have a long history after it first forms. For example, it
may erode out of an igneous rock and then be transported long distances and over
long periods of time before it is finally deposited, becoming one grain among billions
in a layer of sedimentary rock (e.g., sandstone). If a radiometric date were to be
attained from this mineral grain, it would tell us when the mineral first formed, but
not when the sedimentary rock formed (it would, however, tell us the maximum
possible age of the sedimentary rock layer).

Further, heating mineral grains to great temperatures can cause them to leak parent
and daughter material, resetting their radiometric clocks. This can be a concern when
calculating radiometric dates from samples of metamorphic rocks, which are
sedimentary or igneous rocks that have been altered by great amounts of heat and/or
pressure. The melting involved with metamorphic change can reset the radiometric
clock. For example, suppose an igneous rock formed 2.0 billion years ago. If it were
subjected to metamorphism 1.2 billion years ago, radiometric dating would tell us
that a sample from the rock is 1.2 billion years old, not 2.0 billion years old.
 Principles of Stratigraphy
Radiometric Dating