1. What do you know about OSI Model?

Describe all of the layers

of OSI model.

The Open Systems Interconnection model is a layered framework

for the design of network systems that allows for communication
across all types of computer systems.

It consists of seven
separate but related
layers, each of which
defines a segment of
the process of moving
information across a
network.

Fig.1: Tasks involved in sending a letter

Fig. 2: The OSI model
 Application(7)
Provides user‑application services and procedures
Presentation(6)
Structures data in a mutually agreed Application or
Service-Oriented
format; concerned with issues such as how to code
Layers
Soft- and format data; includes data encryption
ware Session (5)
Controls process communications; responsible for
segmenting, buffering, and synchronization
Transport (4) Delivery and
end‑to‑end control; responsible for partitioning Verification
and reassembling messages Services
 Network (3)
Provides routing services for transferring data
across the network; performs network
management, packet formatting
Data Link (2)
Communication
Hard- Organizes data into frames; provides flowor or Network-
ware initialization, flow control, link termination, Oriented Layers
and error control
Physical (1)
Transfers bits across link, defines physical
characteristics of media
(2) How are the layers are organized in the OSI model?
The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to subgroups.

Layers 1, 2, and 3—physical, data link, and network—are the network

support layers; they deal with the physical aspects of moving data from
one device to another (such as electrical specifications, physical
connections, physical addressing, and transport timing and
reliability).

Layers 5, 6, and 7—session, presentation, and application—can be

thought of as the user support layers; they allow interoperability
among unrelated software systems.
Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups and ensures that
what the lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the upper
layers can use.

The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in software;

lower layers are a combination of hardware and software, except for
the physical layer, which is mostly hardware.
In Figure 5, which gives an overall view of the OSI layers, L7 data means
the data unit at layer 7, L6 data means the data unit at layer 6, and so on.

The process starts out at layer 7 (the application layer), then moves from
layer to layer in descending sequential order. At each layer (except layers
7 and 1), a header is added to the data unit.

At layer 2, a trailer is added as well. When the formatted data unit

passes through the physical layer (layer 1), it is changed into an
electromagnetic signal and transported along a physical link.

The headers and trailers attached to it at the corresponding sending

layer are removed, and actions appropriate to that layer are taken.
Fig. 5: An exchange using the OSI model
 (3) Sketch and illustrate the TCP/IP Internet Model
TCP/IP protocol suite is also called as Internet suite which contains
four layered architecture.

Internet Model is what the internet uses for all its communication.

The internet is independent of its underlying network architecture so is

its Model. This model has the following layers:

However, when TCP/IP is

compared to OSI, we can say
that the TCP/IP protocol suite
is made of five layers:
physical, data link, network,
transport, and application.
TCP/IP Internet Model

Figure 11: TCP/IP and OSI model

 TCP/IP Internet Model
Application Layer: This layer defines the protocol which enables user
to interact with the network. For example, FTP, HTTP etc.

Transport Layer: This layer defines how data should flow between
hosts. Major protocol at this layer is Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP). This layer ensures data delivered between hosts is in-order and is
responsible for end-to-end delivery.

Internet Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) works on this layer. This layer
facilitates host addressing and recognition. This layer defines routing.

Link Layer: This layer provides mechanism of sending and receiving

actual data. Unlike its OSI Model counterpart, this layer is independent
of underlying network architecture and hardware.
 ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing
the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Figure 12: Addresses in TCP/IP

Figure 13: Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
Wide Area Network (WAN) encapsulation protocols are used when connecting a
router to an externally provided WAN service. These protocols are based on the
High Level Data Link Control (HDLC) in which each message starts and ends with
the unique flag sequence of 01111110. In order to prevent this flag sequence from
occurring at other parts of the message, a process known as zero bit insertion, or bit
stuffing is used. By considering the transmission of the following 5 message data
bytes show by means of a diagram how zero bit insertion is used when transmitting
this message.

00110011 11110101 01111110 01001101 11111100

Ans:
With zero bit insertion, when five consecutive 1s are detected then an additional
zero bit is inserted in the data stream as shown below. Note that the transmitted
bytes must be considered as a continuous data stream.
When transmitting the data sequence shown in part (d), how
many bits in total have to be sent?

Note that an additional 3 logic 0s have had to be inserted. This

means that (8x5) + 3 bits need to be sent = 43 bits. (59 when
including the start and end flags)
By considering the operation of the TCP protocol, briefly explain how it is able to
overcome errors in the transmission and ensure that data is transferred reliably
over a network.

The following process is followed:

· Every octet transmitted through TCP is uniquely identified by a 32 bit
sequence number which increases by one for each new octet.
· Data is transmitted and acknowledged by the receiving end station.
Acknowledgements are identified by means of the ACK bit and acknowledgement
number within the TCP header.
· A positive acknowledgement is indicated by virtue of the fact that the ACK bit
is set and then the acknowledgement number will indicate the number of the first non-
acknowledged octet. In other words all octets up to an including acknowledgement
number -1 have been successfully received.
· If data is corrupted or lost in transit then this must be detected by the
transmitter. If an acknowledgement has not been received within a given time –
determined by a timer – then the transmitter simply sends the data again. It is the
responsibility of
the receiver to ignore any duplicates it receives. Hence, the transmitter will continue
re-sending data until a positive acknowledgement is received.
Traditionally, four types of characteristics are attributed to a flow: reliability, delay, jitter,
and bandwidth. Briefly explain how each concept is related to QoS.

Reliability is a characteristic that a flow needs. Lack of reliability means losing a packet or
acknowledgment, which entails retransmission. However, the sensitivity of application programs
to reliability is not the same. For example, it is more important that electronic mail, file transfer,
and Internet access have reliable transmissions than telephony or audio conferencing.
Source-to-destination delay is another flow characteristic. Again applications can tolerate delay
in different degrees. In this case, telephony, audio conferencing, video conferencing, and remote
log-in need minimum delay, while delay in file transfer or e- mail is less important.
Jitter is the variation in delay for packets belonging to the same flow. For example, if four
packets depart at times 0, 1, 2, 3 and arrive at 20, 21, 22, 23, all have the same delay, 20 units of
time. On the other hand, if the above four packets arrive at 21, 23, 21, and 28, they will have
different delays: 21, 22, 19, and 24. For applications such as audio and video, the first case is
completely acceptable; the second case is not. For these applications, it does not matter if the
packets arrive with a short or long delay as long as the delay is the same for all packets. For this
application, the second case is not acceptable. Jitter is defined as the variation in the packet
delay. High jitter means the difference between delays is large; low jitter means the variation is
small.

Different applications need different bandwidths. In video conferencing we need to send millions
of bits per second to refresh a color screen while the total number of bits in an e-mail may not
reach even a million.