NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS

CONTENT
 Overview of networking concepts
 OSI Layers
 TCP/IP Layers
 TCP Flags
 IP Addressing
 Subnet & Supernet
 Basics Network Devices
 Understanding Protocols
 OS Fundamentals (Windows)
 Windows Server Architecture
2
OVERVIEW OF NETWORKING CONCEPTS

3
 DEFINITION OF COMPUTER NETWORK
Transmission media Printer

 Collection of computers and

devices connected together via
communication devices and
transmission media

Server

Computer Scanner Switch

 ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORK

 Easy Communication and Speed

 Ability to Share Files, Data and

Information

 Sharing Hardware

 Sharing Software
 TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORK

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Computer network within a small
geographical area such as a home,
school, computer laboratory, office
building or group of buildings
 TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORK

 Metropolitan Area Network

(MAN)
 Similar to a local area network (LAN)
but spans an entire city or campus.
 MANs are formed by connecting
multiple LANs
 TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORK

 Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Network that exists over a large-scale
geographical area.
 A WAN connects different smaller
networks, including local area
networks (LAN) and metro area
networks (MAN)
 DEFINITION OF INTERNET

 A global computer network providing a

variety of information and communication
facilities
 Consist of interconnected networks using
standardized communication protocols
OSI LAYERS

10
 INTRODUCTION OSI LAYER

 The OSI Model (Open System Interconnection) is a description for layered

communications and computer network protocol & transmission design
 Seven layers

 Going from layer 1 to 7: Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away

 Going from layer 7 to 1: All People Seem To Need Data Processing
11
cont…
 PHYSICAL LAYER
 Electrical and physical specifications for devices, it defines the
relationship between a device and a physical medium

 Includes the layout of pin, voltages, cable specification, hubs,

repeaters, network adapters, host bus adapters
 Functions and services are:
 Establishment and termination of a connection to a communication
medium.
 Singles being sent and received 0’s and 1’s
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 DATA LINK LAYER

 Provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between

network entities
 Detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical Layer
 MAC Address is used at this layer
 Switches function at this layer

13
 NETWORK LAYER

 Provides the functional and procedural means of transferring data

from a source to a destination via one or more networks
 The Network Layer performs : network routing functions
 The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination

14
 TRANSPORT LAYER

 Provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing

reliable data transfer services to the upper layers
 Controls the reliability of a given link through flow control,
segmentation and error control
 Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments
 Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model

15
 SESSION LAYER

 Controls the connections between computers

 Responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, authentication, and also ensures security

16
 PRESENTATION LAYER

 The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer

 Encryption or Decryption :
 Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
 The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known
as plain text
 Compression
 Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network

17
 APPLICATION LAYER

 The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user,
 Both application layer and the user interact directly with the software application
 Functions typically include
 Identifying communication partners
 Determining resource availability
 Application layer protocols
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Post Office Protocol (POP)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 Domain Name System (DNS) 18
TCP/IP LAYERS

19
TCP/IP MODEL

20
 INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP MODEL

 Developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network)

 The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model
 The TCP/IP model consists of four layers
 Application Layer
 Transport Layer
 Internet Layer
 Network Interface

21
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OSI AND TCP/IP MODELS

22
 COMPARISON OF OSI AND TCP/IP MODEL
OSI Model
Developed by ISO (International
Standard Organization)
OSI Model provides a clear distinction
between interfaces, services, and
protocols.
OSI refers to open systems
interconnection.
OSI uses the network layer to define
routing standards and protocols.
OSI layers have seven layers
TCP/IP Model
Developed by ARPANET (Advanced
Research Project Agency network)
TCP/IP doesn’t have any clear
distinguishing points between
services, interfaces, and protocols.
TCP refers to transmission control
protocol
TCP/IP uses only the internet layer
TCP/IP has four layers
23
TCP FLAGS

24
 TCP FLAGS

 In TCP connection, flags are used to indicate a particular state of

connection or to provide some additional useful information like
troubleshooting purposes or to handle a control of a particular
connection
 Most commonly used flags are “SYN”, “ACK” and “FIN”. Each flag
corresponds to 1 bit information

25
cont…
 TYPES OF FLAGS
 Synchronization (SYN)
 Used in first step of connection establishment phase or 3-way handshake process between
the two hosts

 Acknowledgement (ACK)
 Used to acknowledge packets which are successful received by the host

 Finish (FIN)
 Used to request for connection termination, when there is no more data from the sender,
it requests for connection termination

 Reset (RST)
 Used to terminate the connection if the RST sender feels something is wrong with the TCP
connection or that the conversation should not exist.
26
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IP ADDRESSING

27
 WHAT IS AN IP ADDRESS

 IP address stands for internet protocol address

 It is an identifying number that is associated with a specific computer or
computer network
 There are four types of IP addresses (public, private, static, and dynamic)
 It works on Network Layer (Layer 3)
 Two Versions of Addressing Scheme
 IP version 4
 IP version 6

28
cont…
 IP ADDRESS VERSION 4
 IPv4 is a 32-Bit IP Address
 IPv4 offers five different classes of IP Address. Class A to E.
 32 bits are divided into 4 Octets known as Dotted Decimal Notation

29cont…
 IP CLASSES
 Total IP Addressing Scheme is divided into 5 Classes

 CLASS A
 CLASS B
 CLASS C
 CLASS D
 CLASS E

30
 IP ADDRESS VERSION 6

 IPv6 has a 128-bit address length

 IPv6 is an alphanumeric address whose binary bits are
separated by a colon (:). It also contains hexadecimal
 Unicast, multicast, and anycast

31
cont…
…cont IP ADDRESS VERSION 6

Class Leading Number of Networks Addresses per Total Addresses Range

bits network in Class
Class A 0 128 (27) 16,777,216 (224) 231 0.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255
Class B 10 16,384 (214) 65,536 (216) 230 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255
Class C 110 2,097,152 (221) 256 (28) 229 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255
Class D 1110 Not defined Not defined 228 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255
Class E 1111 Not defined Not defined 228 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255

32
 BINARY TO DECIMAL CONVERSION
Taking Example for First Octet :
Total 8 bits, Value will be 0’s and 1’s
i.e. 28 = 256 combination
27 2 6 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 = 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 2
Total
Total IP
IP Address
Address Range
Range
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 3
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 4 00 .. 00 .. 00 .. 00
to
to
255.255.255.255
255.255.255.255

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 255

33
 EXAMPLE - CLASS A
Class A : N.H.H.H
Network Address :
0xxxxxxx.00000000.00000000.00000000
Broadcast Address :
0xxxxxxx.11111111.11111111.11111111
Class AA
Class Network Address
10.0.0.0
10.0.0.0
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2
10.0.0.2
10.0.0.3
10.0.0.3 Valid IP Addresses

10.255.255.254
10.255.255.254
10.255.255.255 Broadcast Address
10.255.255.255
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 SUBNET MASK
 Subnet Mask differentiates Network portion and Host Portion
 Subnet Mask is been given for host Identification of Network ID
 Represented with all 1’s in the network portion and with all 0’s in the host
portion

35
cont…
 SUBNET MASK – EXAMPLES
Class A : N.H.H.H
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
Default Subnet Mask for Class A is 255.0.0.0

Class B : N.N.H.H
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
Default Subnet Mask for Class B is 255.255.0.0

Class C : N.N.N.H
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Default Subnet Mask for Class C is 255.255.255.0 36
SUBNET & SUPERNET

37
 SUBNETTING
 Dividing a Single Network into Multiple Networks.
 Converting Host bits to Network Bits
 Converting 0’s into 1’s
 Subnetting can be done in three ways
 Requirement of Networks
 Requirement of Hosts

38
 SUPERNET
 What is Supernet?
 Opposite of Subnetting. In this multiple smaller networks are combined
together to form a large network
 Why supernetting?
 The routing table contains the entry of a subnet mask for every
network.
 If there are lots of small networks then the size of the routing table
increases.
 When the router has a big routing table then it takes a lot of time for
the router to process the routing table.
 Used to reduce the size of the IP routing table to improve network
routing efficiency
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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUBNETTING AND
SUPERNETTING
S/NO Subnetting
1 Subnetting is the procedure to divide
the network into sub network
2 In subnetting, Network Addresses bits
are increased
3 In subnetting, the mask bits are
moved towards right
4 Subnetting is implemented via
variable length subnet masking
5 In subnetting, Address depletion is
reduced or removed
Supernetting
While super netting is the procedure of
combine the small networks
While in supernetting, Host addresses
bits are increased
While in supernetting, The mask bits are
moved towards left
While in supernetting, is implemented
via class
While it is used for simply moving
proceed
SOME IMPORTANT VALUES

41
BASICS NETWORK DEVICES

42
 BASICS OF NETWORK DEVICES

 Network Interface Cards

 Hub
 Switch
 Router
 Modem
 Repeater
 Access Point

43
cont…
…contBASICS OF NETWORK DEVICES

 Network interface cards

 NIC is a component of the computer to connect it to a network

 Network cards are of two types Internal network cards and external network cards

44
cont…
 BASICS
…cont OF NETWORK DEVICES

 Hub
 Hub is a network hardware device for connecting multiple Ethernet devices
together and making them act as a single network segment

45
cont…
 BASICS
…cont OF NETWORK DEVICES

 Repeater
 An electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it.
 Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the signal can
cover longer distances or be received on the other side of an
obstruction

46
cont…
 BASICS
…cont OF NETWORK DEVICES

 Access Point
 Wireless access point is a networking hardware device that allows other Wi-Fi
devices to connect to a wired network

47
UNDERSTANDING PROTOCOLS

48
 UNDERSTANDING PROTOCOLS
 Network protocols
 A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is
transmitted between different devices in the same network
 Protocols are like languages

49
 HOW NETWORK PROTOCOLS WORK
 Take large-scale processes and break them down into small, specific tasks
or functions
 Created according to industry standard by various networking or
information technology organizations
 The following groups have defined and published different network
protocols
 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
 The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 The International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
 The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)

50
 WHO USES NETWORK PROTOCOLS
 Network protocols aren’t only relevant to certified network specialists or IT
professionals.
 Billions of people use network protocols daily, whether they know it or not

51
 LIST OF NETWORK PROTOCOLS
 DHCP : Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
 DNS : Domain Name System protocol
 FTP : File Transfer Protocol
 HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
 HTTPS : Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
 IMAP : Internet Message Access Protocol
 POP : Post Office Protocol
 SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 Telnet : Terminal emulation protocol
 SNMP : Simple Network Management Protocol
 ICMP : Internet Control Message Protocol
 ARP : Address Resolution Protocol
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OS FUNDAMENTALS (WINDOWS)

53
 WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM
 Computer System = Hardware + Software
 Software = Application Software + System Software(OS)
 An Operating System is a system Software that acts as an interface between
a user of a computer and the computer hardware
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

54
 OPERATING SYSTEM MODE

 The User Mode is concerned with

the actual interface between the
user and the system.
 Controls running applications and
accessing files
 The Kernel Mode is concerned with
everything running in the
background
 Controls accessing system resources,
controlling hardware functions and
processing program instructions
 System calls are used to change
mode from User to Kernel
55
 KERNEL
 Software code that exist in central core of OS. It has complete control over
system
 When operation system boots, kernel is first part of OS to load in main
memory
 Kernel remains in main memory for entire duration of computer session. The
kernel code is usually loaded in to protected area of memory
 Kernel performs executing processes and handling interrupts in kernel space
 User performs its task in user area of memory
 Memory separation is made in order to prevent user data and kernel data
from interfering with each other
 Kernel does not interact directly with user, but it interacts using SHELL and
other programs and hardware 56
 KERNEL
 Kernel includes,
 Scheduler
 Allocates the Kernel’s processing time to various processes
 Supervisor
 Grants permission to use computer system resources to each process
 Interrupt handler
 Handles all requests from the various hardware devices which compete for kernel services
 Memory manager
 Allocates space in memory for all users of kernel service
 Kernel provides services for process management, file management, I/O
management, memory management
 System calls are used to provide these type of services
57
 SYSTEM CALL
 System call is the programmatic way in which a computer
program/user application requests a service from the kernel of the
operating system on which it is executed
 Application program is just a user-process.
 Due to security reasons , user applications are not given access to
privileged resources(the ones controlled by OS)
 When they need to do any I/O or have some more memory or
spawn a process or wait for signal/interrupt, it requests operating
system to facilitate all these.
 System calls are also called software-interrupts

58
 STARTING AN OPERATING SYSTEM(BOOTING)
 Power On Switch sends electricity to the
motherboard on a wire called the Voltage Good
line
 If the power supply is good, then the BIOS (Basic
Input/output System) chip takes over.
 In Real Mode, CPU is only capable of using
approximately 1 MB of memory built into the
motherboard
 The BIOS will do a Power-On Self Test (POST) to
make sure that all hardware are working
 BIOS will then look for a small sector at the very beginning
of your primary hard disk called MBR
 The MBR contains a list, or map, of all of the partitions on
your computer‘s hard disk (or disks)
 After the MBR is found the Bootstrap Loader follows basic
instructions for starting up the rest of the computer, including the
operating system.
 In Early Kernel Initialization stage, a smaller core of the
Kernel is activated
 This core includes the device drivers needed to use
computer‘s RAM chips
59
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

60
 PROCESS MANAGEMENT
 A process is a program in execution
 Needs certain resources, including CPU time, memory, files, and I/O
devices to accomplish its task
 Simultaneous execution leads to multiple processes.
 If processes are dependent, then they may try to share same resources
 If processes are independent, then a due care needs to be taken to avoid
their overlapping in memory area
 Based on priority, it is important to allow more important processes to
execute first than others

61
 MEMORY MANAGEMENT
 Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each with its own address
 It is a repository of quickly accessible data shared by the CPU and I/O
devices
 Main memory is a volatile storage device. When the computer made
turn off everything stored in RAM will be erased automatically
 In addition to the physical RAM installed in your computer, most
modern operating systems allow your computer to use a virtual
memory system.
 The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connections with memory management:
 Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom
 Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available
 Allocate and de-allocate memory space as needed 62
 FILE MANAGEMENT
 A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator
 File systems provide the conventions for the encoding, storage and
management of data on a storage device such as a hard disk.
 FAT32 (older versions of Windows)
 NTFS (newer versions of Windows)
 EXT3 (Unix/Linux)
 HFS+ (Max OS X)
 The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connections with file management:
 File creation and deletion
 Directory creation and deletion
 Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media
63
 DEVICE MANAGEMENT OR I/O MANAGEMENT
 Device controllers are components on the motherboard (or on expansion cards) that
act as an interface between the CPU and the actual device
 Device drivers, which are the operating system software components that interact
with the device's controllers
 A special device (inside CPU) called the Interrupt Controller handles the task of
receiving interrupt requests and prioritizes them to be forwarded to the processor
 Deadlocks can occur when two (or more) processes have control of different I/O
resources that are needed by the other processes, and they are unwilling to give up
control of the device
 Keeps tracks of all devices connected to system
 Designates a program responsible for every device known as Input/output
controller
 Allocates devices in an effective and efficient way
 Deallocates devices when they are no longer required
64
 SECURITY & PROTECTION
 The operating system uses password protection to protect user
data and similar other techniques

 It also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data

by assigning access right permission to files and directories

 The owners of information stored in a multiuser or networked

computer system may want to control use of that information,
concurrent processes should not interfere with each other

65
 USER INTERFACE MECHANISM
 A user interface (UI) controls how you enter data and instructions
and how information is displayed on the screen

 There are two types of user interfaces

 Command Line Interface
 Graphical user Interface

66
 COMMAND-LINE INTERFACE
 In a command-line interface, a user types commands represented by
short keywords or abbreviations or presses special keys on the keyboard
to enter data and instructions

67
 GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE
 With a graphical user interface (GUI), you interact with menus and
visual images

68
 HISTORY OF OPERATING SYSTEM
 The First Generation (1940's to early 1950's)
 No Operating System
 All programming was done in absolute machine language, often by wiring up plug-
boards to control the machine’s basic functions
 The Second Generation (1955-1965)
 First operating system was introduced in the early 1950's.It was called GMOS
 Created by General Motors for IBM's machine the 701.
 Single-stream batch processing systems
 The Third Generation (1965-1980)
 Introduction of multiprogramming
 Development of Minicomputer
 The Fourth Generation (1980-Present Day)
 Development of PCs
 Birth of Windows/MaC OS 69
 TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

 Batch Operating System

 Multiprogramming Operating System
 Time-Sharing OS
 Multiprocessing OS
 Distributed OS
 Network OS
 Real Time OS
 Embedded OS

70
 BATCH OPERATING SYSTEM
 The users of this type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly
 Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the
computer operator
 There is an operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirement and group
them into batches

cont…
71
…cont BATCH OPERATING SYSTEM

 Advantages of Batch Operating System:

 Processors of the batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in queue
 Multiple users can share the batch systems
 The idle time for the batch system is very less
 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems
 Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:
 The computer operators should be well known with batch systems
 Batch systems are hard to debug
 It is sometimes costly
 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails
 Examples of Batch based Operating System:
 IBM's MVS

72
 MULTIPROGRAMMING OPERATING SYSTEM
 This type of OS is used to execute more than one jobs simultaneously by a
single processor
 It increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one
job to execute
 Multiprogramming operating systems use the mechanism of job scheduling
and CPU scheduling

73
 TIME-SHARING OPERATING SYSTEMS
 Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly
 These systems are also known as Multi-tasking Systems
 The task can be from a single user or different users also
 The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum
 After this time interval is over OS switches over to the next task

cont…
74
…cont TIME-SHARING OPERATING
SYSTEMS

 Advantages of Time-Sharing OS
 Each task gets an equal opportunity
 Fewer chances of duplication of software
 CPU idle time can be reduced
 Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS
 Reliability problem
 One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user
programs and data
 Data communication problem
 Examples of Time-Sharing Oss
 Multics, Unix
75
 MULTIPROCESSOR OPERATING SYSTEMS
 Multiprocessor operating systems are also known as parallel OS or tightly
coupled OS
 Such operating systems have more than one processor in close
communication that sharing the computer bus, the clock and sometimes
memory and peripheral devices.
 It executes multiple jobs at the same time and makes the processing
faster
 It supports large physical address space and larger virtual address space
 If one processor fails, then other processor should retrieve the
interrupted process state so execution of process can continue
 Inter processes communication mechanism is provided and implemented
in hardware
76
 DISTRIBUTED OPERATING SYSTEM
 Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with each
other using a shared communication network
 Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU
 These are referred to as loosely coupled systems
 Examples:- Locus, DYSEAC

77
 NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM
 These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data,
users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions
 These types of operating systems allow shared access of files, printers,
security, applications, and other networking functions over a small private
network
 The “ other" computers arc called client computers, and each computer
that connects to a network server must be running client software
designed to request a specific service
 Popularly known as tightly coupled systems

78
 NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM
 Advantages of Network Operating System
 Highly stable centralized servers
 Security concerns are handled through servers
 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the
system
 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of
systems
 Disadvantages of Network Operating System
 Servers are costly
 User has to depend on a central location for most operations
 Maintenance and updates are required regularly
 Examples of Network Operating System are:
 Microsoft Windows Server 2003/2008/2012, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD
79
 REAL-TIME OPERATING SYSTEM
 These types of OSs serve real-time systems
 The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is very small.
 This time interval is called response time
 Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are
very strict like:
 missile systems
 air traffic control systems
 robots

80
 EMBADED OPERATING SYSTEM
 An embedded operating system is one that is built into the circuitry of an electronic device
 Embedded operating systems are now found in automobiles, bar-code scanners, cell
phones, medical equipment, and personal digital assistants
 The most popular embedded operating systems for consumer products, such as PDAs,
include the following
 Windows XP Embedded
 Windows CE.NET:- it supports wireless communications, multimedia and Web
browsing It also allows for the use of smaller versions of Microsoft Word, Excel,
and Outlook.
 Palm OS:- It is the standard operating system for Palm-brand PDAs as well as
other proprietary handheld devices.
 Symbian:- OS found in “smart” cell phones from Nokia and Sony Ericsson

81
 POPULAR TYPES OF OS
 Desktop Class
 Windows
 OS X
 Unix/Linux
 Chrome OS
 Server Class
 Windows Server
 Mac OS X Server
 Unix/Linux
 Mobile Class
 Android
 iOS
 Windows Phone
82
 DESKTOP CLASS OPERATING SYSTEMS
Platform: the hardware required to run a particular operating system

 Intel platform (IBM-compatible)

 Windows
 DOS
 UNIX
 Linux
 Macintosh platform
 Mac OS
 iPad and iPhone platform
 iOS
83
 MS-DOS
 Single User Single Tasking OS
 It had no built-in support for networking, and users had to manually
install drivers any time they added a new hardware component to their
PC
 DOS supports only 16-bit programs
 Command line user interface
 So, why is DOS still in use? Two reasons are its size and simplicity.
 It does not require much memory or storage space for the system, and its
docs not require a powerful computer

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 MICROSOFT WINDOWS
 The graphical Microsoft operating system designed for Intel-platform
desktop and notebook computers
 Best known, greatest selection of applications available
 Current editions include Windows 7, 8, 8.1 and 10

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 MAC OS
 User-friendly, runs on Mac hardware. Many applications available.
 Current editions include Sierra, High Sierra, Mojave, Catalina & Big
Sur—Version XI(Released in Nov 2020)

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 LINUX
 Linux: An open-source, cross-platform operating system that runs on
desktops, notebooks, tablets, and smartphones
 The name Linux is a combination Linus (the first name of the first
developer) and UNIX (another operating system)
 Users are free to modify the code, improve it, and redistribute it,
 Developers are not allowed to charge money for the Linux kernel itself
(the main part of the operating system), but they can charge money for
distributions (distros for short)

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WINDOWS SERVER ARCHITECTURE

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WINDOWS SERVER ARCHITECTURE

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 WINDOWS SERVER ARCHITECTURE

 Any performance monitoring, tuning, or optimization you do on a

Windows Server system involves the kernel.

 Actually everything you do involves the kernel.

 The kernel is the most central part of the operating system, and without
it you do not have much use of the Windows System at all

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 KERNEL

 The kernel is basically the system32 directory in the Windows catalog on

the hard drive. It is made up of many files, including .dll, .exe, and .com
files
 This is the part of the operating system that applications access
 This way nothing ever accesses the kernel itself, and it becomes harder
to sabotage the system
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 THREADS
 A thread is a single path of execution within a process
 Threads share all resources the process has (such as memory)
 All the applications running on your servers have one process each
 There can be one or many threads within a process—thus the terms
single- or multithreaded applications
 If you open Windows Task Manager and click the Processes tab, you can
see the processes running on computer

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 SOFTWARE-BASED AND HARDWARE-BASED
SECURITY
 There are two kinds of security in your servers

 software based and controlled by the operating system

 hardware based and controlled by the processor

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 USER MODE AND KERNEL MODE
User Mode vs Kernel Mode

User Mode is a restricted mode, which the application programs are Kernel Mode is the privileged mode, which the computer enters when
executing and starts out. accessing hardware resources.

Modes

User Mode is considered as the slave mode or the restricted mode. Kernel mode is the system mode, master mode or the privileged mode.

Address Space

In User mode, a process gets their own address space. In Kernel Mode, processes get single address space.

Interruptions

In Kernel Mode, if an interrupt occurs, the whole operating system

In User Mode, if an interrupt occurs, only one process fails.
might fail.

Restrictions

In user mode, there are restrictions to access kernel programs. Cannot In kernel mode, both user programs and kernel programs can be
access them directly. accessed.

…cont
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…cont USER MODE AND KERNEL MODE

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