SELECTING POWER PLANT Piston engines, gas turbines, and jet engines are the most

commonly used in aircraft, while the pulsejet and rocket

The power plant is what makes powered flight possible through the
motors are rarely used.
generation of a force used to produce forward velocity, which then
is used to create wing lift.
Simplicity, low cost of construction, and high noise
As such, the engine selection is fundamental to the success of the levels.
Could you estimate the pros and cons of pulse
design. While the thrust-to-weight ratio is excellent, thrust
engines?
specific fuel consumption is very poor.
There is a range of power plant options available for the modern
aircraft: piston engines, gas turbines, jet engines (turbojets and
turbofans), to name a few.

German V1 – flying bomb

(pulsejet engine)
SELECTING POWER PLANT Piston engines, gas turbines, and jet engines are the most
commonly used in aircraft, while the pulsejet and rocket
The power plant is what makes powered flight possible through the
motors are rarely used.
generation of a force used to produce forward velocity, which then
is used to create wing lift.
Simplicity, low cost of construction, and high noise
As such, the engine selection is fundamental to the success of the levels.
design. While the thrust-to-weight ratio is excellent, thrust
specific fuel consumption is very poor.
There is a range of power plant options available for the modern
aircraft: piston engines, gas turbines, jet engines (turbojets and
turbofans), to name a few.

German V1 – flying bomb

(pulsejet engine)
 Electric motors are the most efficient power source currently available. The aircraft designer must keep such properties in mind
Low energy- mass ratio limits the use of electricity. when selecting a power plant:
Battery technology has been developing, electric motors could possibly be power output;
the alternative as a power source for aerospace industry. type;
cost, and availability of fuel;
fuel efficiency;
weight;
mechanical complexity;
price;
maintainability;
cooling requirements;
inlet and exhaust requirements.

Pipistrel Taurus G4
The Taurus Electro was announced in 2007, and entered into service in
2011, becoming the first electric 2-seat aircraft in serial production
available on the market.
Pipistrel made history by flying nearly 196 miles non-stop, in 1 hour 49
minutes
Thermodynamics of the Power Plants

In engines, chemical energy is converted mechanical energy.

The first step entails a compression of a mixture of air and fuel inside the combustion chamber (side
1-2).

The next step is the combustion, in which chemical energy obtained by the rapid burn of the fuel-air
mixture increases the pressure without additional change in volume (side 2-3).

This pressure forces the piston in the opposite direction, increasing the volume as shown by side 3-4.

Finally, once the piston reaches the position of maximum volume, a valve is opened, allowing the gases
to escape (exhaust). This will drop the pressure inside the cylinder without additional change in
volume (side 4-1). This operation is then repeated in the engine.
A similar thermodynamic cycle for gas turbines is called the Brayton cycle.

In this cycle, air enters the intake to the engine at a specific pressure. It is
then compressed using a multi-bladed compressor and forced through
ducting that reduces the volume of the air (side 1-2).

The air is then directed into a combustion chamber, at which point it mixes
with fuel, and the mixture is ignited. The geometry of the chamber forces
volumetric expansion without change in pressure (side 2-3).

The fuel-air mixture rushes through an opening in the combustion chamber,

and impinges on a turbine wheel(s) with the associated conversion to
mechanical energy. As this happens, the pressure of the mixture drops and its
volume increases (side 3-4).

Side 4-1 represents the completion of this cycle as fresh air again enters the
inlet to the engine.
General Theory of Thrust Generation

Magnitude of is so small, so can be ignored

Important parameter
Indication of the performance of the engine or vehicle.
Brake-horsepower (BHP) Engine Torque and Turboprop engines
The power measured using a brake type dynamometer at a specific
location, e.g. crankshaft. The power output of turboprop aircraft is often
1 hp = 746 W represented using torque and RPM, rather than
horsepower. Consequently, when considering
Shaft-horsepower (SHP) performance data for turboprop aircraft, it is often
SHP refers to the amount of power delivered at the propeller shaft of helpful to convert the torque and RPM into
a gas turbine engine. horsepower.

Equivalent Horsepower (EHP)

EHP is a term used only for turboprops and refers to the
combination of the SHP and the residual thrust available from
its jet exhaust. The EHP is usually about 5% higher than the SHP.

Thrust Horsepower (THP)

THP refers to the amount of power used to propel an aircraft
through the air in terms of horsepower.
Engine Power and Thrust Rating
The concepts related to power plants frequently used when evaluation engine power and thrust ratings
1. Take off, wet refers to thrust generation of a jet engine utilizing afterburner or the maximum available T-O thrust of an engine
that uses water injection.

Wet take-off of Boeing KC-135

Spraying water into the incoming air or fuel-air mixture, or directly
into the combustion chamber to cool certain parts of the
induction system where "hot points" could produce premature
ignition.
Water injection may be used to increase engine thrust, particularly
at low-altitudes and at takeoff.
The afterburner is a secondary combustion system that operates
in the exhaust stream of the engine before the stream is introduced
into the exhaust nozzle. Such a device is not as fuel-efficient as
the main turbofan section of the engine because heat addition
occurs at a lower pressure than in the main burner. The
afterburner, however, is relatively simple and lightweight, since
it does not contain any rotating machinery.
2. Take-off, dry either refers to thrust generation of a jet engine without the use of an afterburner, or the maximum thrust
available for T-O without the use of water injection.

3. Max continuous power (MCP) or thrust (MCT) refers max power setting which can be used continuously. It is usually intended to
use in an emergency, e.g. one engine operation.

4. Maximum climb power or thrust refers to the power or thrust setting used during normal climb operations.

5. Maximum cruise power or thrust refers to the power setting used for cruise.

6. Flat rating . A flat-rated engine is one that generates less than its maximum capable thrust in normal conditions.
2. Take-off, dry either refers to thrust generation of a jet engine without the use of an afterburner, or the maximum thrust
available for T-O without the use of water injection.

3. Max continuous power (MCP) or thrust (MCT) refers max power setting which can be used continuously. It is usually intended to
use in an emergency, e.g. one engine operation.

4. Maximum climb power or thrust refers to the power or thrust setting used during normal climb operations.

5. Maximum cruise power or thrust refers to the power setting used for cruise.

6. Flat rating . A flat-rated engine is one that generates less than its maximum capable thrust in normal conditions.

Flat rating engines provides the benefits below:

- Simplified performance of an engine
Simplifies flight planning and performance calculations for pilots and
operators.
- Enhancing safety and reliability
Engine can work within design limit and avoiding exceeding critical
parameters
- Improvement in aircraft performance
It provides a more efficient and reliable power source for various flight
phases.
- Regulatory concerns
Flat rating is an engine criteria
Specific fuel consumption
SFC indicates how efficiently a power plant converts chemical
energy into mechanical energy.
UK system

UK system

SI system

SI system
Properties of Piston Engines
Differences between 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines

Intake/Ignition Intake
Compression/Exhaust Compression
Combustion
Exhaust
Properties of Piston Engines
Differences between 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines?

Intake/Ignition Intake
Compression/Exhaust Compression
Combustion
Exhaust
 Lycoming engine
36-cylinder radial engine
7,750 in³ (127 L)
Produce 5000 HP

Cox Tee Dee 0.010 (0.00016 L) engine

used to power small radio-controlled aircraft

Radial piston engine

Effect of altitude on engine performance
Turboprop Engines
A turboprop is a gas turbine engine designed to primarily drive a
propeller as the thrust generator.

The turboprop engine packs far more power per unit weight than
the piston engine.

As an example, the power-to-weight ratio of turboprops is generally

in the 2.3 to 2.7 SHP/lb f range for the modern gas turbine (1.5 e 1.7
SHP/lb f for gas turbines from the 1950s to 1970s).

Beechcraft King Air B250 GT

Advantages
Cost-effective and straightforward operation and maintenance
Lightweight compared to jet engines
More efficient at low altitude (typically below 25 000-30 000 ft)
Lightweight compared to jet engines

Disadvantages
Low cruising speed
Limited cruising altitude
Unsuitable for long-distance travel
Traditionally, turboprop planes are limited to flights up to 1,500 miles.
Turbojet Engines
A turbojet engine is a jet engine which produces all of its thrust by
ejecting a high energy gas stream from the engine exhaust nozzle

Advantages
Capable of cruising high altitudes (up to 45000 ft)
Faster and quitter
Longer range

Disadvantages
Less efficient and cost effective for shorter distance
(turboprop engines are more effective during take-off, at
slower speed and altitudes)
More expensive to operate and maintain
Turbofan Engines

A turbofan is a more advanced type of turbojet engine. A turbojet

It ducts air around the turbine at the core of the engine. This
sucks in air and compresses it, creating combustion of fuel. A
creates a cushion effect that keeps turbine temperatures down
turbofan has a large fan that sucks in a lot of air, but only part of it is
and increases its efficiency. It also creates a sound barrier that
used to fuel the engine’s combustion, the rest exiting as exhaust. This
reduces the engine’s noise level.
makes it less noisy and more powerful.

What is difference between turbofan and turbojet engines?

Advantages
More efficient than turbojets
Less noise emission

Disadvantages
Complexity, thus maintenance
Electric Engines Electric motors have recently become trend, started using for light aircraft industry.

The world first commercially produced electric driven aircraft

According to product information,
it has an empty weight without batteries of 377 lb f (172 kg),
Yuneec E430 empty weight with batteries of 561 lb f (255 kg),
and maximum T-O weight of 946 lb f (430 kg).

The battery pack weighs 184 lb f (83.5 kg)

and is a lithium-ion polymer (LiPo) that takes 3-4 hours to recharge
at 220 V (double or triple that for 110 V)
and provides about 2 hours flying time.

Why wings with high AR are used
for electric driven airplanes?
Electraflyer C
The E430 stalls at 35 KCAS, cruises at 52 KTAS, and has a top speed
of 80 KTAS
The Electraflyer is a modified single-seat Monnett Moni motorglider
that has been equipped with a 13.5 kW (18 hp) electric motor.

Its empty weight with a battery pack is 380 lb f (172 kg) and
maximum T-O weight is 625 lb f (283 kg).

It cruises at 61 KTAS and has a maximum level airspeed of 78 KTAS.

It can stay aloft for 1.5 hours using a 5.6 kWh LiPo battery pack. Such
a pack weighs about 78 lb f (36 kg).
Electric Engines Electric motors have recently become trend, started using for light aircraft industry.

The world first commercially produced electric driven aircraft

According to product information,
it has an empty weight without batteries of 377 lb f (172 kg),
Yuneec E430 empty weight with batteries of 561 lb f (255 kg),
and maximum T-O weight of 946 lb f (430 kg).

The battery pack weighs 184 lb f (83.5 kg)

and is a lithium-ion polymer (LiPo) that takes 3-4 hours to recharge
at 220 V (double or triple that for 110 V)
and provides about 2 hours flying time.
Less consumption
The E430
Less dragstalls at 35 KCAS, cruises at 52 KTAS, and has a top speed
of 80 KTAS
High efficiency
High AR wings
Increased stability
Less maneuverability
The Electraflyer is a modified single-seat Monnett Moni motorglider
Electraflyer C that has been equipped with a 13.5 kW (18 hp) electric motor.

Its empty weight with a battery pack is 380 lb f (172 kg) and
maximum T-O weight is 625 lb f (283 kg).

It cruises at 61 KTAS and has a maximum level airspeed of 78 KTAS.

It can stay aloft for 1.5 hours using a 5.6 kWh LiPo battery pack. Such
a pack weighs about 78 lb f (36 kg).
Current limitation of electric motors

Energy density is too low compared to the fossil fuels. The current battery technology poses fire hazards.
Battery pack comes with heavy weight

Energy durability-shelf life

Loss in the number recharge-discharge cycle

Discharge voltage depends on the remaining charge

and battery temperature.
The initial discharge voltage is usually high, but
diminishes with the energy used. The ideal battery for use in airplanes should be light,
This means that initially after a battery recharge is rechargeable, have a long durability, and with the highest
completed, the battery appears to “contain a lot of energy density possible.
power.” However, this drops rapidly.
For aircraft this means that a fully charged battery yields
a reported T-O distance, but the first touch-n-go requires
a much longer runway. This is not acceptable for aircraft
transporting people for commercial purposes

It is the landing on a runway and taking off again without

coming to a full stop.
AIRCRAFT POWER PLANT INSTALLATION
(a) the airplane powerplant installation includes each
component that
(1) Is necessary for propulsion; and
(2) For the safety of the major propulsive units.
(b) Each powerplant installation must be constructed and
arranged to
(3)Ensure safe operation to the maximum altitude for
which approval is requested.
(4) Be accessible for necessary inspections and
maintenance.
(c) Engine cowls and nacelles must be easily removable or
openable by the pilot to provide adequate access to and
exposure of the engine compartment for preflight checks.
(d) Each turbine engine installation must be constructed
and arranged to
(1) Result in carcass vibration characteristics that do not
exceed those established during the type certification
of the engine.
(2) Ensure that the capability of the installed engine to
withstand the ingestion of rain, hail, ice, and birds into the
engine inlet is not less than the capability established for
the engine itself
(e) The installation must comply with
(2) The instructions provided under the engine type
certificate and the propeller type certificate.
(2) The applicable provisions of this subpart.
Fireproofing
Fire is a real threat in all aircraft. Unlike a car, the inability to stop the vehicle on a
moment’s notice makes fire in airplanes a very serious issue.

Fireproofing is the addition of fire-resisting or retarding material and the

installation of fire-suppression chemical dispensers to aircraft intended to
make it more fire-resistant and, thus, safer in the case of such an emergency.

There are three areas in an aircraft that are more susceptible to fire than others:
the engine compartment, the cabin area, and anywhere electrical wiring is
placed.

Certifications are forced to manufacturer fire-proof design.

Find the link for the details of the accident due to the fire, Air Canada flight 797
https://admiralcloudberg.medium.com/a-song-of-smoke-and-fire-the-tragedy-of-air-canada-fli
ght-797-7ea7923e76d8
Danger zone around propeller
The area front and behind of the engines are danger zone.
Propeller can strike for the ones standing the front of the engines.
Exhaust gases can cause the burnt of people standing behind the
engines.
Also, inhaling the exhaust gases can result in serious health
problems.

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-66016948
Piston Engine Installation

The piston engine installation must meet several requirements:

(1) Be structurally sound enough to react all loads generated by
the engine.
(2) Allow for easy access for maintenance.
(3) Allow engine controls to be easily routed to and from the
engine. This includes the electrical system, fuel plumbing, and
engine controls (throttle, mixture, pitch control).
(4) The installation must be resistant to fire.
(5) The propeller must have a type certificate and be free of
vibration.
There are three common means of mounting a piston engine to the
airplane.

Dynafocal mounts arrange the fastener pattern such that the

fasteners point toward the CG of the engine. This reduces engine
vibration, but requires the engine mount and motor pads to be
welded at an angle, making their fabrication harder.

Conical mounts align the fasteners parallel to the crankshaft, while

bed mounts align the fasteners perpendicular to the crankshaft.
Airflow for tractor configuration

The cooling method introduces air

through a front-facing inlet and it is then
directed around the engine cylinders using
thin panels called baffles .

The purpose of baffles is to ensure that air

entering the engine compartment flows
around the exposed cylinder cooling fins
by blocking other possible paths.

Airflow for pusher configuration

 Airflow for tractor configuration

If you compare downdraft and updraft cooling configuration, which one The cooling method introduces air
could create a safety issue? through a front-facing inlet and it is then
directed around the engine cylinders using
thin panels called baffles .

The purpose of baffles is to ensure that air

entering the engine compartment flows
around the exposed cylinder cooling fins
by blocking other possible paths.

Airflow for pusher configuration