Estimating Errors

Using Variance
By Jenny G. Gallo
 Measurement Error
refers to the difference between a measured value and the true value.

Random Systematic
Errors Errors
In the context of estimating errors from multiple measurements,
variance helps assess the consistency and precision of the
measurements by determining how much they deviate from the
mean value.

VARIANCE
Measures the squared deviation of each number in the set
from the mean
σ 2
s 2
Var(X)
The variance of a set of measurements is calculated step-by-step
as follows:
1. Take the mean of the set of measurements.

2. Take the deviation of each measurement from

the mean.

3. Square each deviation.

4. Get the sum of the squares of each deviation.

5. Divide the sum of the squares by the number

of measurements in the set.
 A variance of zero means that all measurements are
identical.
 A small variance indicates that the values are close
to one another, which means they are precise.
 The square root of the variance is the
standard deviation.

It is a measure of how diverse or spread out are a set of measurements

from their average.
How To Solve Variance?
X x̄ Xi - x̄ (Xi - x̄
17 3 9
15 1 1
23 9 81
7 -7 49
9 -5 25
13 -1 1
∑ 84 14 166 33.2
How To Solve Variance? σ2 = Population
variance

= =

represents the sum of the squared differences between each data point

Sample variance Unbiased sample variance

How To Solve Variance?
Plant height in cm
X x̄ Xi - x̄ (Xi - x̄
25.4
25.5
25.6
25.5
25.4
25.6
∑
Suppose we have a set of data with the following values: 10, 20, 30, 40,
50. Calculate the variance of the set of data.

X x̄ Xi - x̄ (Xi - x̄
10
20
30
40
50
∑
Sample Problem

During an experiment in physics laboratory class, a

group of five students was asked to measure the
period of a simple pendulum. Their measurements
were as follows: 2.3 s, 2.4 s, 2.2 s, 2.5 s, and 2.1 s.
Determine the (a) mean, (b) variance, (c) standard
deviation, and (d) measured period of the pendulum.
Sample Problem

In an experiment, 10 trials were done to determine

the range of a projectile. The measurements for the
range of the projectile in centimeters are as follows:
134.8, 133.9, 135.1, 134.7, 135.3, 134.9,
135.2, 134.8, 135.5, 135.4
Determine the (a) mean, (b) variance, (c) standard
deviation, and (d) measured range of the projectile.
Absolute and
Relative
Uncertainties
By Jenny G. Gallo
A measurement must be represented by two components:

1. A numerical or measured value with the proper unit that gives

the best estimate of the quantity measured.

2. The degree of uncertainty in the measurement.

Percentage
Relative
Uncertainty
Absolute
 It shows how large the
error is in relation to
the true value.  It shows how large the error is.
Example

Suppose we have a measured value of 25.0 cm with an

absolute uncertainty of ± 0.5 cm.
The relative uncertainty is the ratio of the absolute uncertainty to the measured
value, expressed as a percentage.

Relative uncertainty = (absolute uncertainty / measured value) x 100%

Relative uncertainty = (0.5 cm / 25.0 cm) x 100%
Relative uncertainty = 2.0%
Sample Problem

The speed of an ant was measured to be v = (3.05 ±

0.02) cm/s. Find the (a) absolute uncertainty and (b)
relative uncertainty of the speed of the ant.
Solution:
With v = (3.05 ± 0.02) cm/s, the absolute uncertainty is 0.02 cm/s

Relative uncertainty = x 100% = 0.7%

Sample Problem

The measurement of the volume of an object is 1.53

2.5%. Find the absolute uncertainty.
Solution:

Absolute Uncertainty = Percentage Uncertainty x Measurement

Absolute uncertainty = x 1.53 = 0.03825 = 0.04

Sample Problem
A chemistry student is conducting an experiment to
determine the density of a liquid. The student measures
the mass of the liquid to be 125.6 grams with an absolute
uncertainty of ±0.2 grams. The volume of the liquid is
measured as 150.0 mL with an absolute uncertainty of
±1.0 mL. Calculate the relative uncertainty in density and
express it as a percentage. Also, calculate the absolute
uncertainty in density.
Sample Problem
A biology student is conducting an experiment to determine
the growth rate of a plant. The student measures the height of
the plant to be 15.0 centimeters with an absolute uncertainty of
±0.2 centimeters. The time taken for the plant to grow to this
height is measured as 10.0 days with an absolute uncertainty
of ±0.5 days. Calculate the relative uncertainty in growth rate
and express it as a percentage. Also, calculate the absolute
uncertainty in growth rate.
Sample Problem
Taylor is conducting an experiment to determine the density
of a liquid. She measures the mass of the liquid to be 75.2
grams with an absolute uncertainty of ±0.3 grams. The
volume of the liquid is measured as 100.0 mL with an
absolute uncertainty of ±0.5 mL. Calculate the relative
uncertainty in density and express it as a percentage. Also,
calculate the absolute uncertainty in density.
Graphical Analysis
By Jenny G. Gallo
 Independent Variable
The variable that is changed by an experimenter.
Experiment in physics
usually involve changing a Dependent Variable
variable and observing
The variable that is affected by the change of the
how another variable is independent variable.
affected by this change.
y (Dependent variable)

x(Independent variable)
 Distance vs. Time

Distance (m)

Time (s)

Scatter Graph - used to visualize the relationship between two

continuous variables, where each data point represents a pair of
values (x, y) that correspond to the two variables.
Let’s Try