Methodology

ESTER R. RODULFA
 Objectives
• Be familiar with the quantitative research
designs.
 RESEARCH DESIGNS
The choice of research design
strongly influences the quality of
evidence the study yields.
Research design has more impact
on the quality of the study than
any other methodological
decisions.
 NON-EXPRIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Many research questions cannot be addressed with

an experiment or quasi-experiment
• The researcher do not intervene by manipulating
the independent variables, the study is non-
experimental.
• This study is usually needed before an
experimental study can be planned. The non-
experimental research describe the scope of the
problem and critical relationships between
variables.
 Types of Non-experimental
research designs
1. Correlational research design or
Ex post facto design
 Useful in examining phenomena as they naturally
occur without the researchers intervention.
 It will examine relationships between variables.
The criteria for causality are an empirical
relationship between variables will be identified.
 The researcher does not control the independent
variable which has already occurred
• ADVANTAGES:
 It is strong on realism and therefore has intrinsic appeal in
solving many problems. It is appropriate when
manipulation of variables is impractical or impossible due
to insufficient time, inconvenience, presence of
administrative barriers or prior manifestation of the
variable of interest.
• METHODOLOGY:
 It is similar to quasi experimental non-equivalent control
group post test only design except for the absence on
independent variable being manipulated
• Limitation :
 There is no direct control over the independent variable
 There is also no randomization
2. Retrospective designs or case-
control studies
An existing phenomena is linked to a situation
that occurred in the past before the study was
initiated.
The researcher is interested in a present outcome
and attempts to determine the antecedent
factors that caused it.
USES: Identify risk factors of different problems or
conditions.
3. Prospective Study (Cohort study)
Starts with a presumed cause and go forward with
a presumed effect.
Limitations: More costly than retrospective
studies because substantial follow-up is necessary
for dependent variable to manifest. May require
large samples if dependent variables are rare.
Strengths : stronger than retrospective study.
Samples are more likely to be representative. The
investigators can impose control to rule out
competing explanations of the result .
4. Natural Experiment
A group that is exposed to a natural
phenomenon that have important
health consequences are compared
with a non-exposed group .
5. Path analytic studies
Testing theories of causation based on
non-experimental data
Researcher tests if non-experimental
data conform sufficiently to the
underlying model to justify causal
inferences
6. Descriptive Research
Applicability : to observe,
describe and document aspects of
a situation as it naturally occurs
and sometimes to serve as a
starting point for hypothesis
generation or theory development
 Types of Descriptive Research
DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIONAL
STUDY
To describe relationship among
variables rather than infer cause and
effect relationship
UNIVARIATE DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
Prevalence study - to determine the
prevalence rate of some conditions.
Determines the extent to which the condition
of interest is present.
Incidence Study – used to measure the
frequency of developing new cases.
Longitudinal designs are needed to determine
the incidence. The researcher must first
establish who is free of the condition and risk
of becoming a new case.
LIMITATIONS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
1. Weak establishing causal relationship
2. Susceptible to faulty interpretation because it
lacks the randomization but groupings are done
through self selection leading to selection bias
3. Cannot assure that groups being compared are
similar before the occurrence of the dependent
variable
4. The interpretations of most correlational results
should be considered tentative particularly if it
has theoretical basis.
 STRENGTHS OF DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
1. Many problems are not amenable to
experimentation
2. To list a causal hypothesis that has been
deduced from an established theory.
3. An efficient means of collecting a large
amount of data about the problem.
4. Looks at a few variables at a time
5. Strong in realism and has a strong intrinsic
appeal to solving a practical problem.
6. Seldom criticized for artificiality.
NON TRADITIONAL /NONEXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. Survey – information obtained are relatively
superficial
2. Evaluation research – the cornerstone of
policy research. Can contribute to policy
formulation
3. Needs Assessment – Similar to evaluation
research
 NON TRADITIONAL /NONEXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGNS
4. Secondary analysis - the researcher examine the
documents . Since the researcher does not gather
the data there is a big possibility that the data
set will be deficient
5. Meta-analysis – gathers data on researches
previously done on the subject. It is convenient
and an objective method of integrating a large
body of finding and of observing patterns and
relationships that might otherwise have gone
undetected.
 NON TRADITIONAL /NONEXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGNS
6. Delphi survey – a method that asks the different experts on
the topic being studied . It is relatively efficient and
effective method of combining the expertise of a large
group of individuals to obtain information or planning and
prediction purposes.
7. Time dimension designs– a non-experimental design which
aims to determine the cause. Also known as inferred
causality.
 Longitudinal design – examines changes in the same subject over
an extended period of time.
 Cross sectional design – used to examine various groups of
individuals in various stages of development simultaneously.
 Trend design – examines changes in the general population in
relation to a particular phenomenon
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGNING FOR QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
PRINCIPLES of quantitative studies:

• Principle of Causality
Studies are quantitative if the research questions are about
cause and effect
Criteria for causality
1. The cause must precede the effect in time (temporal)
2. There is an empirical relationship between the perceived cause and
the perceived effect
3. The relationship cannot be explained as being cause by other variables.
The BradfordHill criteria for causality;
1. Coherence – involves similar evidence from multiple other sources
(meta-analysis)
2. Biologic plausibility – evidence from the laboratory that causal
pathway is credible
 DESIGNING FOR QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
PRINCIPLES of quantitative studies:

• Counterfactual model
 A model that tells us what will happen if the
subjects were not exposed to the causal factors.
Involves the establishment of a control group
Uses of counterfactual include:
• Alternative intervention group
• Placebo
• Standard method of care or usual treatment
• Different doses or intensities of treatment
– This is used to analyse dose response effect.
• Wait list control group – with delayed treatment. The
control group eventually will receive treatment but is
deferred.
 Designs to identify causal relationship
• EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
(Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT))
True experiment is the gold standard
for yielding reliable evidence about
cause and effect
The phenomenon is observed under
controlled condition and MUST meet
the criteria for establishing causality.
Characteristics of true experiments
1. Manipulation or intervention
2. Control – control group or a counterfactual
group which does not receive the intervention
3. Randomization –
 assigning subjects to control and
experimental group is on random basis
4. Validity – The gathered evidences should be
unbiased and cogent
POSITIVE CONTROL GROUP
Expected to have a positive result.
Allows the investigator to show that the set up was
capable of producing result
Reduce the chances of false negative
NEGATIVE CONTROL GROUP
Expected to have a negative result
Makes sure that no confounding variable has affected
the result
Can also be a way to set the baseline

Failure to provide sufficient evidence

of strong control groups can
completely invalidate a study.
 BASIC EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
1. AFTER ONLY DESIGN or post test only
design
After random assignment,
treatment is introduced and data on
dependent variable is collected only
once.
R X O
R O
2.Pre-test – post-test design
 Pre-test and post-test were
conducted before and after the
experimental treatment was
done to the control and
experimental group
R O X O
R O O
3. One shot design
One group of treatment was given to one group of
subjects and then measured or observed. One
treatment, one observation.
Highly useful on practice setting. It provides least
measure to a new treatment of the group in
question
it is simple, easy and low cost . Gives answer to
post treatment behavior shortly after the
treatment.
X O
4. Factorial design
Manipulating two or more variables
simultaneously.
comparing two antimicrobial agents
(garlic and penicillin) to S. Aureous at
the in high temperature and in low
temperature we want to determine the
amount of dilution which affects the
growth of the bacteria most.
 FACTORIAL DESIGN
SUBJEC TREATMENT
T
S. Hi-temp Lo-temp Hi-temp Lo-temp
aureous 25% garlic 25% garlic
500 mg 500 mg
extract extract
penicillin penicillin

50% garlic 50% garlic 500 mg 500 mg

extract extract penicillin penicillin

100 % garlic 100 % garlic 500 mg 500 mg

extract extract penicillin penicillin
5. Randomized block design
Look similar to factorial structure but in this
design.
There are two independent variables but one is
not experimentally manipulated but a stratifying
variable
Example: comparing the effects garlic extract and
penicillin to s. Aureoaus and e. Coli
Randomized block design
SUBJECT TREATMENT
S. aureous 25% garlic extract 500 mg penicillin
50% garlic extract 500 mg penicillin
100 % garlic extract 500 mg penicillin
E. coli 25% garlic extract 500 mg penicillin
50% garlic extract 500 mg penicillin
100 % garlic extract 500 mg penicillin
6. Cross over design
Involves the exposure of one subject to more than
one experimental treatment
This type of one subject design has an advantage
of ensuring the highest possible equivalence
among subjects exposed to different conditions.
The groups being compared are equal with
respect to characteristics because they are the
same people or subjects.
7. Solomon four group
combination of pretest posttest control
design and posttest only design

R O X O
R O O
R X O
R O
 STRENGTHS OF EXPERIMENTS
1. It yield the highest quality evidence regarding
intervention effects
2. Randomization and use of comparison condition is
close to attaining the ideal counterfactual
3. Gives increase in confidence that causal
relationships can be inferred.
4. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
which integrate studies using experimental designs
are the pinnacle of evidence hierarchies for
questions relating to causes
 LIMITATIONS OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Artificiality- more variables are
controlled
2. Clinical studies are conducted in areas
where there is little control
3. Hawthorne effect
– output or effects that result from the
mere fact of being under observation
B. QUASI-EXPERIMENTS
• Also involves intervention but lacks
randomization (the signature of a quasi-
experiment). Referred to as controlled trials
without randomization. It can even lack a
control group
• Not as powerful as experiments in
establishing causal relationship
1. Non-equivalent control group design
• Before –after design
Involves an experimental treatment and two groups of
subjects observed before and after the implementation
Two groups are observed before and after treatment.
Comparison group is used in lieu of the control group
»O x O
»O O
The experimental and comparison group must have similar
characteristics so that changes after the intervention can
be attributed to the intervention and not to extraneous
variables.
2. Non-equivalent control group design

Control group after only design

No pre test . data is gathered only after
intervention
A weaker experimental design
X O
O
3. Time series design
Information is gathered over an extended
period. The extended period strengthen the
ability to attribute changes to the
intervention
Usually used in single subject experiments
• O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
 4. Other quasi-experimental designs
Regression discontinuity
design
Systematic assignment of subjects based on cut-
off scores on pre-intervention measures (giving
intervention to the severely ill).
Partially randomized treatment
preference
Those with strong preference get to choose their
treatment condition and are followed up as part of
the study. Those without preference will be
randomized.
This study can yield information on the kind of
people who prefer one intervention. Weakness will
be those who selected one intervention can be
different from those who selected the alternative.
dose response design
the outcome of those receiving different doses of
treatment not as a result of the randomization
if large dose results to large outcomes, this
provides evidence for inferring that the treatment
caused the outcome
 STRENGTHS OF QUASI-EXPRIMENTAL
DESIGNS
1. Practical
2. Can introduce some control if experimental
research is not possible
3. Patient may not be able to relinquish control
over the experimental treatment condition.
 Qualitative research
• Qualitative research - focuses on gathering insights and
understanding the individual perceptions of the
phenomenon under study.
• They delve into hidden meanings.
• Considered as a soft science concerned with subjective
meaning of experiences of an individual.
• It is used to enhance the interpretability of quantitative
studies.
• The purpose is to make a thorough description of people
or events and data collected through unstructured
interview and participant observation
• Qualitative studies are not intended to be generalized
to study population and are also not intended to test
cause and effect relationship.
• Saturation is reached when themes become repetitive
suggesting no new inputs is needed.
• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IS BASED ON trustworthiness
rather than reliability and validity
• Bricoleur - a person who has expertise in performing
qualitative research.
• Informants – respondents or participants in the
qualitative research
• Sampling for qualitative research is non-probability
sampling such as purposive or snowball sampling
 TYPES OF QUALITATIVE STUDIES
• Phenomenology – examines the lived experiences
of individuals about a phenomenon through
description and analysis.
• Ethnographic studies – collection and analysis of
data on lifestyle and daily activities of a culture or a
group of people.
• Grounded theory studies – concerned with the
development of a theory. The conceptual
framework will be taken from the data generated
rather than from previous studies.
 TYPES OF QUALITATIVE STUDIES
• Historical studies – involves in the identification,
location and critical evaluation and synthesis of past
events to shed light on present behavior, trends and
practices.
• Case studies – in-depth examination and analysis of
people or groups of people in relation to health issues
or problems that are important to the researcher.
• Field studies- Investigate problems as they occur in the
natural setting such as in the clinical wards, housing
projects, communities, etc.
 TYPES OF QUALITATIVE STUDIES
• Biographies – explore the life of an individual from
data derived from documents
• Critical theory – is an action oriented research. It
aims to integrate theory and practice such that
people become aware of contraindications and
incongruities in their culture, beliefs and social
practices.
• Feminist approach- focus on gender domination
and discrimination characteristics of a patriarchal
society.
 TYPES OF QUALITATIVE STUDIES
• Participatory action research - works with
groups or communities that are vulnerable to
the control or oppression of a dominant
group.
• Focus group- is an in-depth qualitative
interview in which a group of people were
asked about their attitude towards a
particular subject matter which could be a
product, a service, a concept or experience.
 PHASES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Phase 1 – conceptualizing and planning
Identify research problem, review related studies,
select research site, formulate strategy, address ethical
issuers.
• Phase II- conducting a qualitative study
Initial findings , observation and discussion, cluster the
findings, identify emerging patterns, determine data
saturation, trustworthiness of data, debriefing
• Phase III – Writing
Transcribing the data in verbatim, develop category
scheme, content analysis of narrative data and
encoding qualitative
 DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. BRACKETING-
– Identifying and holding in abeyance preconceived
ideas, beliefs and opinions about the
phenomenon under study to limit the researchers’
bias of the phenomenon.
2. IMMERSION
– Data collection process on which the researcher
lives with the data overtime.

3. INTUITING
– The researcher is open to meanings attributed to
the phenomenon
4. DATA REDUCTION-
– Simplifying the large amount of data obtained
from interviews and from the sources
5. ANALYZING
– Dissecting of significant meanings of statement
and events
6. DESCRIBING
– Defining and interpreting the meaning of the
phenomenon under study.