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Research Methods1
Research Methods1
Research Methods1
Postgraduate Program
A. Researchers-researchers
Collect Data
Analyze Data
Interpret and
Report
2.1.Souces of Research Problem
A Research problem
is a discrepancy between what one knows and
ought to know to solve a problem.
refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or
practical situation and wants to obtain a solution
for the same.
Sources of research problem
Sources are:
Experiences
Literatures
Theories
Reports
Technology
Inconsistence in past studies
2.2. Criteria of good research problem
1. Interests
2. Researchable
3. Feasible/practical
4. Significance
5. Economics
2.3. Formulating a Research Process
1. Defining a problem
2. Showing the severity of the problem with data
3. Showing the extent of the problem with data
4. Showing the gap in the previous studies and
your value-added
Defining the Research Problem
Knowing what to research and its purpose is key to
the first step in the research design.
A good research topic is broad enough to allow
you to find plenty of material, but narrow enough
to fit within the size and time constraints of your
paper.
The problem identification affects the quality,
usefulness, effectiveness and efficiency of the
research activity.
Defining the problem, showing the severity of the
problem, showing the extent of the problem, and
showing the gaps
Defining the Research Problem
What does one mean when he/she wants to define a
research problem?
It involves the task of laying down boundaries
within which a researcher shall study the problem.
◦ Productivity levels
◦ Some measure of fertilizer use.
The research problem and objectives
A bad example might be: "What is the best way to
train for use of fertilizer"?
-This is insufficient because:
What are the variables?
What will be measured?
What relationships
Selecting the problem
As a researcher, note that
◦ Topic which is overdone should not be
normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.
◦ The topic selected for research needs familiarity
and feasibility so that the related research
material or sources of research are within one’s
reach.
Selecting the problem
◦ Controversial subject should not become the
choice of an average researcher.
◦ Too narrow or too vague problems should be
avoided.
◦ Take into account the importance of the subject,
the qualifications and the training of a
researcher, the costs involved, time factor
What is not a problem?
Lack of study in this area
Studies were carried out elsewhere but not done
locally
Studies were carried out using a particular type of
sample but mine will use a different type of
sample
Studies have found some factors but I want to
find more factors
objectives
Objectives of the study:
◦ This is the step of rephrasing the problem into
operational or analytical terms, i.e. to put the problem in
as specific terms as possible.
◦ in this section the specific activities to be achieved are
listed.
The main purposes of the study must be clearly enunciated.
Objectives
General objectives
Provides a short statement of the specific goals pursued
by the research.
What is the general reason for carrying out this research?
In most of the cases, it is your topic written in the form of
an objective.
Specific objectives
◦ Indicative title:
they state the subject of the proposal rather than
expected outcomes.
Example: The role of agricultural credit in
alleviating poverty in a low-potential area of
Ethiopia.
◦ Hanging titles have two parts: a general first part
followed by a more specific second part.
• Example: ‘Alleviation of poverty in low-
potential area of Ethiopia: the impact of
agricultural credit’.
Identification of a Research Topic
Question-type titles are used less commonly than
indicative and hanging titles.
However, they are acceptable where it is possible
to use few words – say less than 15.
◦ Example: ‘Does agricultural credit alleviate
poverty in low-potential areas of Ethiopia?’
Identification of a Research Topic
Where do research topics come from?
A topic must spring from the researcher’s mind like
a plant springs from its own seed.
◦ It could be generated by the researcher
The best way to identify a topic is to draw up a
shortlist of possible topics that have emerged from
your reading or from your own experience that
look potentially interesting.
◦ A general area of interest or aspect of a subject
matter (agriculture, industry, social sector, etc.)
may have to be identified at first.
Identification of a Research Topic
A) Professional Experience
Own professional experience is the most important
source of a research topic.
Many researchers are directly engaged in program
implementation and come up with a topic based on
what they see happening around them.
◦ Contacts and discussions with others,
◦ attending conferences, seminars, and
◦ listening to learned speakers
are all helpful in identifying research problems.
Identification of a Research Topic
b) Inferences from the literature
Another source for research ideas is the theoretical
or empirical literature in your specific field.
Many researchers get ideas for research by reading
the literature and thinking of ways to extend or
refine previous research.
Two types of literature can be reviewed.
The conceptual literature
The empirical literature
Research reports, bibliographies of books, and
articles, periodicals, research abstracts and research
guides suggest areas that need research.
Identification of a Research Topic
C) Provided by a client
◦ Requests For Proposals (RFPs) are published by
government agencies and some companies.
These RFPs describe some problem that the agency
would like researchers to address -- they are virtually
handing the researcher an idea.
The RFP describes the problem that needs addressing,
the contexts in which it operates, the approach they
would like you to take to investigate to address the
problem, and the amount they would be willing to pay
for such research.
Identification of a Research Topic
d) Technological and Social Changes
◦ New developments bring new development
challenges for research.
e) Other Sources
Many researchers simply think up their research
topic on their own.
No one lives in a vacuum, so we would expect that
the ideas you come up with on your own are
influenced by your background, culture, education
and experiences.
Identification of a Research Topic
In any case, the most fundamental rule of good
research is to investigate questions that sincerely
interest you.
i.e. research which a researcher honestly enjoys
even if he/she encounters problems frustrating
or discouraging.
2.2. Research Hypothesis
It is a tentative prediction or explanation about the
relationship between variables: Ho and H1
1. Specify relationship
2. Testable
3. Justifiable
4. Concise
2.2.3. Hypothesis Testing
There are four procedures:
1. Stating the hypothesis
2. Setting the criteria for a decision
3. Collecting data
4. Evaluate the H0
Problem: Type I (When Ho is wrongly rejected) and Type
II accept Ho wrongly when it is false in fact)
Decision
Reject Ho Accept Ho
Truth Ho Type I Right Decision
H1 Right Decision Type II
Significance of the study
Significance of the study is also called
justification or importance of the study.
State why you feel the study is important. This is
usually stated in terms of identifying people or
institution that will benefit from it and how they
will benefit.
This is where you convince scholars that their
research is worth undertaking or studying.
Scope of the study
Specifies the boundaries of their research.
Itcovers
◦ Geographical scope which defines the location of the
study;
◦ Theoretical scope by defining issues to be covered; and
◦ Time scope stating the period coverage of the research
Limitation
Limitation, by definition, are factors affecting
research findings substantially and lies beyond the
control of the researcher.
It could be concerned to chosen research method,
research technique, sampling method, sampling
size, etc
Chapter Three: Literature Review and
Research Design
How to Stratify
◦ Three major decisions must be made in order to
stratify the given population into some mutually
exclusive groups.
(1) What stratification base to use: stratification
would be based on the principal variable under
study such as income, age, education, sex,
location, religion, etc.
Cont…
(2) How many strata to use: there is no precise
answer as to how many strata to use.
◦ The more strata the closer one would be to come
to maximizing inter-strata differences and
minimizing intra-strata variables.
(3) What strata sample size to draw: different
approaches could be used:
One could adopt a proportionate sampling
procedure.
Or use disproportionate sampling, which
allocates elements on the basis of some bias.
D. Cluster sampling
Cluster sample: Is useful when it is difficult or
costly to develop a complete list of the population
members or when
The population elements are widely dispersed
geographically.
Cluster methodology basically leads to less
efficient estimates (bigger confidence intervals, for
a given sample size) but the larger sample size can
offset this.
Population divided into clusters, e.g. regions of the
country
Only some of the clusters sampled. This reduces
cost, possibly substantially
Cont…
Cluster sample: Is useful when it is difficult or
costly to develop a complete list of the population
members or when
The population elements are widely dispersed
geographically.
Cluster methodology basically leads to less
efficient estimates (bigger confidence intervals, for
a given sample size) but the larger sample size can
offset this.
Population divided into clusters, e.g. regions of
the country
Only some of the clusters sampled. This reduces
cost, possibly substantially
Determining the sample size
Research designs with too small sample size are
unethical
◦ because they waste resources as they can only
provide anecdotal evidence.
If the sample size is too small, the data will be
unusable.
Research studies that use too large samples i.e.,
larger than needed, also are unethical because:
they waste time and financial resources,
Determining the sample size
Sample size determination hinges on:
i) Degree of homogeneity: The size of the population
variance is an important parameter.
The greater the dispersion in the population the
larger the sample must be to provide a given
estimation precession.
Determining the sample size
ii) Degree of confidence required: Since a sample can
never reflect its population for certain, the
researcher must determine how much precision s/he
needs.
Precision is measured in terms of
(i) An interval range (the margin of error).
(ii) The degree of confidence (how sure you
are)
Determining the sample size
iii) Number of sub groups to be studied:
If the research is to make estimates on several
subgroups of the population then the sample
must be large enough for each of these subgroups
to meet the desired quality level.
iv) Cost: cost considerations have a major
implications.
All studies have some budgetary constraint and
hence cost dictates the size of the sample.
Determining the sample size
V) Prior information: If similar previous study
exists we can use that prior information to
determine our sample size.
using prior mean and variance estimates or
stratifying the population to reduce variation
within groups.
samples that have met the requirements of
the statistical methods from past researches.
Researchers use it because they rarely have
information on the variance or standard errors.
Determining the sample size
vi) Practicality: Of course the sample size you select
must make sense.
We want to take enough observations to obtain
reasonably precise estimates of the parameters
of interest but we also want to do this within a
practical resource budget.
Determining the sample size
Hence:
For small populations (under 1000 a large
sampling ratio (about 30%). Hence, a sample size
of about 300 is required.
For moderately large population (10,000), a
smaller sampling ratio (about 10%) is needed – a
sample size around 1,000.
To sample from very large population (over 10
million), one can achieve accuracy using tiny
sampling ratios (.025%) or samples of about
2,500.
How to Calculate Sample Size for Different
Study Designs
In the recent era of evidence-based medicine,
statistics has come under increased scrutiny.
SD * z1 / 2 2
n
d2
Where Z is the standard normal variate as mentioned
before. SD is the standard deviation of variable. It can be
taken from previous done study. d is the absolute error or
precision as mentioned before. Let SD=25
25 *1.96 2
n 2
96
5
Problems in Sampling
Two types of errors:
Non sampling errors
Sampling errors
1. Non Sampling errors: are biases or errors due to fieldwork
problems, interviewer induced bias, clerical problems in
managing data, etc.
◦ These would contribute to error in a survey,
irrespective of whether a sample is drawn or a census
is taken.
2. sampling errors are error which is attributable to sampling,
and which therefore, is not present in information gathered
in a census.
Problems in Sampling
1. Non-Sampling Error: refers to
◦ Non-coverage error
◦ Wrong population is being sampled
◦ Non response error
◦ Instrument error
◦ Interviewer’s error
Non-Coverage sampling error: This refers to sample
frame defect.
◦ Omission of part of the target population (for
instance, soldiers, students living in campus,
people in hospitals, prisoners, households
without a telephone in telephone surveys, etc).
Problems in Sampling
The wrong population is sampled
◦ Researchers must always be sure that the group
being sampled is drawn from the population
they want to generalize about or the intended
population.
Non response error – Common in self-administered
surveys
◦ This error occurs when you are not able to find
those whom you were supposed to study.
◦ Some people refuse to be interviewed because
they are ill, are too busy, or simply do not trust
the interviewer.
◦ When one is forced to interview substitutes, an
unknown bias is introduced.
Problems in Sampling
Instrument error
◦ The word instrument in sampling survey means
the device in which we collect data- usually a
questionnaire.
◦ When a question is badly asked or worded, the
resulting error is called instrument error.
Example: leading questions or carelessly
worded questions may be misinterpreted by
some researchers.
Problems in Sampling
Interviewer error :
◦ Enumerator can distort the results of a survey by
in-appropriate suggestions, word emphasis, tone
of voice and question rephrasing.
◦ Cheating by enumerators -with only limited
training and under little direct supervision.
◦ Perceived social distance between enumerator
and respondent also has a distorting effect.
E.G: questions about sexual behavior might be
differently answered depending on the gender
of the interviewer.
Problems in Sampling
2 Sampling Errors
◦ Error which is attributable to sampling, and
which therefore is not present in a census.
◦ Sampling errors can be calculated only for
probability samples.
◦ Increasing the sample size is one of the major
instruments to reduce the extent of the sampling
error.
◦ Sampling error is related to confidence intervals.
A narrower confidence interval means more precise
estimates of the population for a given level of
confidence.
Chapter Four: Data Collection
and Management
/Data Processing and Analysis/
Integrity
Integrity refers to the trustworthiness of the
information.
Data should not be modified inappropriately,
whether accidentally or deliberately.
The right information is used.
Data Collection Techniques
Data can be acquired from Secondary and primary
sources or from both.
Secondary Sources of data
◦ Secondary sources are those, which have been
collected by other individuals or agencies.
◦ As much as possible secondary data should
always be considered first, if available.
Data Collection Techniques
But, when dealing with secondary data you should
ask:
Is the owner of the data making them available
to you?
Is it free of charge? If not, how will you pay?
Are the data suitable for your investigation?
A description of the sampling technique, i.e.,
how the sample was collected.
Data Collection Techniques
Sources of Secondary Data
Secondary data may be acquired from various
sources:
Documents (reports of various kinds, books,
periodicals, reference books (encyclopedia),
university publications (thesis, dissertations,
etc.), policy documents, statistical
compilations, proceedings, personal
documents (historical documents, Data
archives, etc.
The Internet
Data Collection Techniques
Advantages of Secondary data
Can be found more quickly and cheaply.
Most researches on past events or distant
places have to rely on secondary data sources.
Limitations
◦ Authenticity: not much may be known about
genuine?
credible?
representative?
Data Collection Techniques
◦ ability, and
◦ willingness to answer the question accurately.
a) Respondents’ ability:
◦ The respondent information level should be
assessed.
Questions that overtax the respondent’s recall
ability may not be appropriate.
Questionnaire Design
b) Willingness of respondent to answer
◦ Even if respondents have the information, they may be
unwilling to give it.
◦ Some of the main reasons for unwillingness:
The situation is not appropriate for disclosing the
information – embarrassing or sensitive
Disclosure of information is a potential threat to the
respondent
topic is irrelevant and uninteresting for them.
Questionnaire Design
to secure more complete and truthful information
Use indirect statements i.e., “other people”
Change the design of the questioning process.
Apply appropriate questioning sequences that will
lead a respondent from „safe“ question gradually to
those that are more sensitive.
Begin with non-threatening and interesting
questions.
Questionnaire Design
Different types of questions
Types of questions depend on research question and affect
the nature of analysis
◦ Attributes – characteristics of respondents (e.g., age,
sex, etc.)
◦ Behaviour – what people do
◦ Beliefs – what people believe
◦ Knowledge – what people know
◦ Attitudes – what is desirable
Questionnaire Design
Questions should be
◦ Relevant
◦ reliable – same response by same individual and
different people should understand the question the
same way
◦ discriminating – should capture sufficient variation
◦ increasing response rates – sensitive questions and
poor survey administration can reduce response rates
Questionnaire Design
Questions should be
◦ Simple and short
◦ About issues respondents have knowledge of
◦ With same meaning to all
Questions should not be
◦ Double-barrelled – do not ask two questions
◦ Leading – push people to answer in a certain way
◦ Avoid words like usually, often, sometimes,
occasionally, seldom, etc.
Questionnaire Design
2. Question Wording: Using Shared Vocabulary
In a survey the two parties must understand each
other and this is possible only if the vocabulary used
is common to both parties.
So, don’t use uncommon words or long sentences or
abbreviations and make items as brief as possible.
And, don’t use emotionally loaded or vaguely
defined words.
Questionnaire Design
3. Response structure or format -
Refers to the degree and form of the structure imposed on
the responses.
◦ Open-ended or closed questions
a) Open Ended Questions
◦ In open-ended questions respondents can give any
answer.
They may express themselves extensively.
The freedom may be to choose a word in a “fill in “
question.
Questionnaire Design
Advantage
◦ Permit an unlimited number of answers
◦ Respondents can qualify and clarify responses
◦ Permit creativity, self expression, etc.
Limitations
responses may not be consistent.
Some responses may be irrelevant
Comparison and statistical analysis difficult.
Articulate and highly literature respondents have an
advantage, etc.
Questionnaire Design
b) Closed Questions
◦ Generally preferable in large surveys.
dichotomous or multiple-choice questions.
Advantages
◦ Easier and quicker for respondents to answer
◦ Easier to compare the answers of different respondents
◦ Easier to code and statistically analyze
◦ Are less costly to administer
◦ reduce the variability of responses
◦ make fewer demands on interviewer skill, etc.
◦ don’t discriminate against the less talkative
Questionnaire Design
Limitations
◦ Can suggest ideas that the respondents would not
otherwise have
◦ too many choices can confuse respondents
During the construction of closed ended questions:
The response categories provided should be exhaustive.
They should include all the possible responses that
might be expected.
The answer categories must be mutually exclusive.
Questionnaire Design
4) Question Sequence – the order of the questions
The order in which questions are asked can affect the
overall data collection activity.
Grouping questions that are similar will make the
questionnaire easier to complete, and the respondent will
feel more comfortable.
◦ Questions that use the same response formats, or those
that cover a specific topic, should appear together.
Questionnaire Design
Questions that jump from one unrelated topic to another
are not likely to produce high response rates.
Each question should follow comfortably from the
previous question.
Transitions between questions should be smooth.
Questionnaire Design
5) Physical Characteristics of a Questionnaire
An improperly laid out questionnaire can lead respondents
to miss questions, can confuse them.
So, take time to design a good layout
◦ ease to navigate within and between sections
◦ ease to use the questionnaire in the field; e.g., questions
on recto and codes on verso sides of the questionnaire
◦ leave sufficient space for open-ended questions
◦ questionnaire should be spread out properly.
Questionnaire Design
Putting more than one question on a line will result in
some respondents skipping the second question.
Abbreviating questions will result in misinterpretation
of the question.
Formats for Responses
◦ A variety of methods are available for presenting a
series of response categories.
Boxes
Blank spaces
Questionnaire Design
Providing Instructions
◦ Every questionnaire whether to be self administered by
the respondent or administered by an interviewer should
contain clear instructions.
General instructions: basic instructions to be followed in
completing it.
Introduction: If a questionnaire is arranged into subsections
it is useful to introduce each section with a short statement
concerning its content and purpose.
Questionnaire Design
Specific Instructions: Some questions may require
special instructions.
Interviewers instruction: It is important to provide clear
complementary instruction where appropriate to the
interviewer.
Questionnaire Design
6) Reproducing the questionnaire
A neatly reproduced instrument will encourage a higher
response rate, thereby providing better data.
◦ Pilot Survey: The final test of a questionnaire is to try
it on representatives of the target audience.
◦ If there are problems with the questionnaire, they
almost always show up here.
Data Management
Data analysis ranges from very simple summary statistics
to extremely complex multivariate analyses.
Data Preparation and Presentation
Data processing starts with the editing, coding,
classifying and tabulation of the collected data.
Data Management
i) Editing
◦ Editing of data is the process of examining the
collected raw data to detect errors and omissions.
◦ In general one edits to assure that the data are:
Accurate
Consistent with other information/facts gathered
Uniformly entered
Data Management
The editing can be done at two levels
a) Field level Editing
After an interview, field workers should review their
reporting forms, complete what was abbreviated,
translate personal shorthand, rewrite illegible
entries, and make callback if necessary.
b) Central editing
when all forms have been completed and returned to
the office data editors correct obvious errors such as
entry in wrong place, recorded in wrong units, etc.
Data Management
ii) Coding
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals to
answers so that responses can be put into a limited
number of categories or classes -coding sheet.
iii) Classification and Tabulation
large volume of raw data must be reduced into
homogenous groups if we are to get meaningful
relationships.
Classification is the process of arranging data in groups or
classes on the basis of common characteristics.
Data Management
Tabulation is the orderly arrangement of data in columns
and rows.
Simple or complex tables.
◦ Simple tabulation gives information about one variable.
◦ Complex tabulation shows the division of data into two
or more categories.
SPSS, R, excel, STATA, etc.
Data Management
Tabulation provides the following advantages:
It conserves space and reduces explanatory and
descriptive statement to a minimum.
It facilitates the process of comparison
It facilitates the summation of items and the detection
of errors and omissions
It provides a basis for various statistical computations
such as measures of central tendencies, dispersions, etc.
Data Measurement
•Data Measurement
•Measurement of the data is the first step in the
process that ultimately guides the final analysis.
Inferential statistics
Are numerical values that enable the researcher to
draw conclusions about a population based on the
characteristics of a population sample
This is based on the laws of probability.
Uses of Inferential Analysis
Problem statement
Research objectives
Research question/hypothesis
Significance of the study
Scope of the study
Organization of the study/ structure of the study
Limitation
Chapter II: Literature Review
In this chapter, students are required to define
relevant key concepts.
It is not about to copy and paste, but the purpose is
to review and examine, to some extent.
Introduction
Definition of Basic Concepts
Theoretical Literature Review
◦ Sub-topics
Empirical Literature Review
Chapter III: Research Design
Descriptionof the study area
Research Types
Research Approach
Sample Design
◦ Population
◦ Sample size
◦ Sampling techniques
Chapter IV: Result and Discussion
Data Presentation using Tables, Charts or Figures
and Narrations
Proper Labels and Captions
Interpretation
Chapter V: Conclusion and
Recommendation
Introduction - a brief on the chapter
Conclusions - a summary drive from the research
findings
Recommendations - should be derived from the
conclusions