1.

River Environments
1.7 Water uses, demand and supply
Water use Vs. water supply
 Water use refers to water actually used by end users (e.g.,
households, services, agriculture, industry) within a territory for a
specific purpose such as domestic use, irrigation or industrial
processing.

 Water supply, in contrast, is the delivery of water to end users

including abstraction for own final use.
Water Consumption
Water consumption refers to the amount of water used by individuals,
households, industries, and communities for various purposes. It is a critical
aspect of daily life and has a significant impact on both the environment
and human well-being.
Water consumption can be categorized into several key areas:
1.Domestic Water Consumption: This includes water used for household
activities such as drinking, cooking, bathing, washing dishes, and flushing
toilets. It also encompasses outdoor water use for activities like gardening
and maintaining lawns.
2.Industrial Water Consumption: Industries use water for various processes,
including manufacturing, cooling, and cleaning. Water is often an essential
component in the production of goods and services in sectors such as
agriculture, manufacturing, energy, and mining.
3.Agricultural Water Consumption: Agriculture is one of the largest
consumers of water worldwide. It involves irrigation for crop production and
livestock watering. Efficient water use in agriculture is crucial for food
security and environmental sustainability.
4.Commercial Water Consumption: Businesses and commercial
establishments use water for a range of purposes, including sanitation, heating,
cooling, and manufacturing processes.
 What is Virtual Water?
• Virtual water is the amount of water you use that is not visible to you. It is in the products
we buy, and a larger chunk is in the food we eat. It was conceptualized by Prof. Tony Allan,
to give us an idea of how much water is needed to keep us comfortable and feed us.
• To simplify, let’s look at Beef. Did you know that every 1 kilo of beef uses up to 15,400
litres of water?
How?
 The cow needs to eat 1,300 kilograms of grains for 3 years before it can be slaughtered and
produce 200 kilos of beef. Those grains require water to grow, the farm and slaughterhouse
need to be cleaned, and the cow needs to drink – all of these add up to 3,091,000 litres of
water!
 1 kilo of chocolate requires 24,000 litres of water.1 piece of paper needs 10 litres.
Difference of the water consumption in
developing and developed countries
Water consumption patterns vary significantly between developing
and developed countries due to differences in infrastructure,
technology, socio-economic factors, and lifestyles.
Some key differences in water consumption
between developed and developing countries
1. Per Capita Water Use:
•Developed Countries: Developed nations generally have higher per capita water
consumption rates. This is partly because of the widespread availability of
modern plumbing and appliances that use water more extensively, such as
dishwashers, washing machines, and larger homes with multiple bathrooms.
•Developing Countries: In contrast, many developing countries have lower per
capita water consumption due to limited access to modern amenities and
infrastructure. People in these areas may rely on communal water sources, hand
pumps, and may not have access to indoor plumbing.
2. Access to Safe Drinking Water:
•Developed Countries: The majority of the population in developed countries
has access to safe and reliable drinking water sources. Water treatment and
distribution systems are well-established, leading to relatively high levels of
water quality.
•Developing Countries: In developing nations, access to safe drinking water can
be limited, and a significant portion of the population may rely on unsafe water
sources. This can result in higher waterborne disease rates and the need for more
conservative water use to ensure health and hygiene.
3. Water Use for Agriculture:
•Developed Countries: Developed nations tend to use advanced irrigation
systems and technologies in agriculture, which can result in efficient water use.
However, agricultural practices in some developed countries can still be water-
intensive.
•Developing Countries: Agriculture is often the largest consumer of water in
developing countries. Traditional and less efficient irrigation methods may be
common, leading to higher agricultural water use.
. Water Efficiency and Conservation:
•Developed Countries: Developed nations have made significant efforts to
promote water efficiency and conservation through regulations, technology
upgrades, and public awareness campaigns. Water-saving appliances, low-flow
fixtures, and efficient agricultural practices are more common.
•Developing Countries: In many developing countries, water efficiency
measures may be less prevalent due to limited resources and other pressing
priorities.
5. Industrial Water Use:
•Developed Countries: Industrial processes in developed nations often use
substantial amounts of water. However, there is a greater emphasis on water
recycling and reuse to minimize waste.
•Developing Countries: In some developing countries, industrial water use can
be significant, and environmental regulations may be less stringent, leading to
potential water pollution issues.
. Cultural and Lifestyle Factors:
•Developed Countries: Lifestyles in developed nations may be characterized by
greater water use for amenities like swimming pools, car washing, and extensive
landscaping.
•Developing Countries: In contrast, developing countries may prioritize water
use for essential needs like drinking, cooking, and sanitation.
It's important to note that these differences can vary widely among countries
within each category, and there is ongoing work to improve water access, quality,
and efficiency worldwide. Achieving a balance between water conservation and
meeting the basic needs of populations remains a global challenge.
Water collection, treatment and delivery
Water a series of steps to source, purify, collection, treatment, and
delivery are essential processes that ensure safe and clean drinking
water is available to communities. These processes involve and
distribute water to homes, businesses, and industries.
1.8 Overview of the key stages involved in
water collection, treatment, and delivery
1. Water Collection:
•Surface Water Sources: Many communities obtain water from surface sources
such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and streams. Water is collected through intakes
or dams.
•Groundwater Sources: Some areas rely on groundwater from wells or
boreholes. Pumps are used to extract water from underground aquifers.
•Rainwater Harvesting: In certain regions, rainwater is collected from rooftops
and stored for various non-potable uses, such as irrigation or flushing toilets.
2. Screening and Pre-Treatment:
•Before water enters the treatment process, large debris like leaves, sticks, and
sediment are screened out to prevent damage to equipment.
•Pre-treatment steps may include coagulation and flocculation, which help to
clump together suspended particles for easier removal.
 3. Water Treatment:
•Coagulation and Flocculation: Chemicals are added to water to form tiny, sticky particles
called floc, which attract impurities.
•Sedimentation: The water is allowed to sit in a large tank, allowing the floc to settle to the
bottom.
•Filtration: The water passes through layers of sand, gravel, and sometimes activated carbon to
remove remaining impurities.
•Disinfection: To kill or inactivate harmful microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses, chlorine
or other disinfectants are added.
•pH Adjustment: The pH level of the water is adjusted to ensure it falls within acceptable limits.
•Fluoridation: In some areas, fluoride is added to prevent tooth decay.
4. Storage:
•Treated water is stored in reservoirs or tanks to meet peak demand and provide a
reserve in case of emergencies.
5. Distribution:
•Water is distributed through a network of pipes that vary in size, ranging from
large mains to smaller distribution lines.
•Pressure is maintained in the system to ensure water reaches all areas.
•Water storage tanks at elevated points help provide consistent pressure.
6. Water Quality Monitoring:
•Continuous monitoring and sampling of water quality take place throughout the
distribution system.
•Water quality parameters such as pH, turbidity, chlorine levels, and microbial
content are regularly tested to ensure compliance with safety standards.
7. Maintenance and Repair:
•Regular maintenance and repair of infrastructure are crucial to prevent leaks,
breaks, and contamination in the distribution system.
1.9 Flooding- Causes and control
Flooding is a natural disaster that can have devastating
consequences for communities and the environment. It occurs when
water overflows onto normally dry land, and it can be caused by a
variety of factors. Controlling flooding involves a combination of
preventative measures, management strategies, and response plans.
Causes of Flooding:

1. Heavy Rainfall: Excessive rainfall, often associated with severe weather

events like hurricanes, tropical storms, or monsoons, can lead to flooding. When
the amount of rainfall exceeds the capacity of rivers, lakes, and stormwater
drainage systems, flooding can occur.
Ex: Recent floods in Libya caused to washed two entire cities in Libya. These
floods were stimulated by torrential rainfall and two dams crashed with excess
rainfall.
2. Snowmelt: In areas with cold winters, rapid snowmelt during spring or due to
sudden temperature increases can lead to a significant influx of water into rivers
and streams, causing them to overflow.
3. River Overflow: When rivers exceed their normal capacity, they can overflow
their banks and flood adjacent areas. This can happen due to heavy rainfall
upstream, snowmelt, or a combination of factors.
4. Flash Flooding: Flash floods are sudden and intense floods that occur within a
short period. They are often caused by heavy rain, dam or levee breaches, or
rapid ice melt.
5. Storm Surges: Coastal areas can experience flooding due to storm surges
caused by tropical storms, hurricanes, or tsunamis. These surges push seawater
inland, inundating low-lying areas.
6. Urbanization: Urban development can increase the risk of flooding by
replacing natural land cover with impervious surfaces like concrete and asphalt.
This reduces the land's ability to absorb rainwater, leading to increased runoff
and flash flooding.
Environmental impacts of floods:
1.Habitat Destruction: Floodwaters can destroy natural habitats, including wetlands,
forests, and grasslands. This can lead to the displacement or death of wildlife and
disrupt ecosystems.
2.Soil Erosion: The force of rushing floodwaters can erode topsoil, leading to soil loss
and degradation. This can reduce soil fertility and affect agricultural productivity.
3.Water Pollution: Floodwaters can pick up and transport pollutants such as sewage,
chemicals, pesticides, and oil, contaminating water bodies and posing a threat to aquatic
life and water quality.
4.Sediment Deposition: Floods can deposit large amounts of sediment in rivers and
lakes, altering aquatic ecosystems and potentially smothering aquatic habitats.
5.Disruption of Aquatic Life: Fish and other aquatic organisms can be displaced or
killed during flooding, especially in smaller streams and rivers that are overwhelmed by
floodwaters.
6. Spread of Invasive Species: Floodwaters can carry invasive plant and animal species
to new areas, facilitating their spread and potentially displacing native species.
7. Water Quality Impacts: The influx of organic matter and nutrients into water bodies
during floods can lead to eutrophication, and excessive growth of algae and aquatic
plants, which can harm aquatic ecosystems.
8. Loss of Riparian Vegetation: Floods can damage or uproot trees and vegetation
along riverbanks, affecting the stability of riverbanks and reducing habitat for wildlife.
9. Contamination of Groundwater: Flooding can contaminate groundwater with
pollutants, making it unsafe for drinking and irrigation purposes.
10. Altered Stream Channels: The force of floodwaters can reshape river and stream
channels, leading to altered flow patterns, erosion, and sediment deposition, which can
impact aquatic life and floodplain ecosystems.
11. Mudslides and Landslides: In hilly or mountainous regions, heavy rainfall
associated with floods can trigger mudslides and landslides, which can further disrupt
ecosystems and pose risks to human safety.
12. Salinity Intrusion: Coastal areas may experience salinity intrusion during
flooding, where saltwater from the ocean infiltrates freshwater ecosystems,
harming freshwater species and affecting agriculture.
13. Loss of Biodiversity: The destruction of natural habitats and the
displacement or loss of species can lead to a reduction in biodiversity in affected
areas.
14. Long-Term Effects: Some environmental effects of floods can persist long
after the floodwaters recede, as ecosystems may take years or even decades to
fully recover.
Efforts to mitigate the environmental impact of floods include habitat
restoration, erosion control measures, monitoring and management of water
quality, and conservation efforts to protect vulnerable species and ecosystems.
Additionally, floodplain management and responsible land use planning can help
reduce the risks of flooding and its associated environmental consequences.
Effects on people:
Floods can have a wide range of effects on people, both immediately during the event and in the
aftermath. These effects can vary in severity depending on factors such as the magnitude of the flood,
the preparedness of the affected community, and the effectiveness of response efforts. Here are some
of the key effects on people due to floods:

1. Loss of Life: Flooding can result in tragic loss of life, as people may be caught in rising waters or
trapped in their homes. Drowning is a significant cause of death during floods.

2. Injuries: Survivors of floods can suffer injuries while attempting to escape or during rescue operations.
Injuries may include cuts, bruises, fractures, and waterborne illnesses.

3. Displacement: Many people are forced to evacuate their homes during floods, leading to temporary
or long-term displacement. Evacuees often seek shelter in emergency centres, with friends and family,
or in temporary housing.

4. Emotional and Psychological Trauma: Experiencing a flood, losing property, or being displaced can
lead to emotional and psychological stress. People may experience anxiety, depression, post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), and other mental health issues.
5. Property Damage: Floodwaters can cause extensive damage to homes, businesses,
and personal belongings. This can result in significant financial losses and emotional
distress for affected individuals and families.
6. Economic Impact: Floods can have a significant economic impact on affected
communities. Businesses may be disrupted or forced to close, and agricultural operations
can be severely affected, leading to crop loss and livestock casualties.
7. Health Risks: Floodwaters can carry contaminants and pathogens, posing health risks
to individuals. Waterborne diseases, such as cholera and dysentery, can spread in the
aftermath of floods due to contaminated water sources and poor sanitation.
8. Food and Water Shortages: Floods can disrupt food and water supply chains, leading
to shortages and increased prices for essential goods. Access to clean drinking water and
food can become a challenge.
9. Infrastructure Disruption: Roads, bridges, and utilities (electricity, gas, and water
supply) can be damaged or disrupted during floods, making it difficult for emergency
responders to access affected areas and for residents to receive essential services.
10. Social Disruption: Communities can experience social disruption, with strained social
services, increased demand for emergency assistance, and strain on community
resources.
11. Educational Disruption: Schools may be closed during and after floods,
disrupting the education of children and young adults.
12. Loss of Community and Cultural Resources: Floods can damage community
facilities, cultural landmarks, and historical sites, resulting in the loss of cultural
heritage and community cohesion.
13. Long-Term Recovery: Recovering from a flood can be a lengthy and
expensive process. Communities must rebuild infrastructure, homes, and
businesses, and individuals may face challenges in restoring their lives to
normalcy.
Efforts to mitigate the impact of floods on people include disaster preparedness,
early warning systems, effective emergency response, floodplain management,
and long-term recovery and rebuilding efforts. Community resilience and
support services, including mental health resources, are also essential in helping
individuals and communities cope with the physical and emotional effects of
flooding.
Control and Prevention Measures for
Flooding:
Construction:
1.Levees and Dams: Building levees and dams along rivers can help control
water flow and prevent overflow. However, these structures need to be well-
maintained to remain effective.
2.Flood Control Channels: Creating channels and canals to divert excess water
away from populated areas can be an effective way to control flooding.
3.Stormwater Management: Implementing effective stormwater drainage
systems in urban areas helps manage runoff and reduce the risk of flash flooding.
This can include green infrastructure like permeable pavement and rain gardens.
4.Elevated Construction: Building structures on elevated foundations can reduce
the risk of flood damage in flood-prone areas.
Adjustments:
1. Floodplain Zoning: Establishing regulations that restrict development in
flood-prone areas can help reduce the risk of flooding. This includes maintaining
open spaces and avoiding construction in high-risk zones.
2. Wetland Preservation: Wetlands act as natural buffers against flooding.
Preserving and restoring wetlands can help absorb excess water and reduce
flood risks.
3. Flood Insurance: Encouraging property owners in flood-prone areas to
purchase flood insurance can help mitigate financial losses in the event of a
flood.
4. Climate Change Mitigation: Addressing climate change and reducing
greenhouse gas emissions can help mitigate the increasing frequency and
severity of floods associated with changing weather patterns.
Prediction:
1. Early Warning Systems: Developing and maintaining early warning
systems can provide residents with timely information about impending
floods, allowing them to evacuate or take protective measures.
2. Community Preparedness: Educating communities about flood risks
and promoting preparedness measures, such as emergency evacuation
plans and the creation of emergency supply kits, is essential for
minimizing the impact of floods.
Flood control and prevention require a multifaceted approach involving
government agencies, community engagement, and environmental
conservation efforts. It's important to adapt strategies to local conditions
and work collaboratively to reduce the impact of flooding on
communities and the environment.