University of Kirkuk

Applied Geology dep.

Mining Geology
lecture Notes

Dr. Burkan Saeed othman

 aims
• Students understand the basic principles of
mining geology

• Students have gained practical skills in dealing

with the fields of mining (exploration,
extraction, environment)
 Evaluation

• Quiz (class ,online) 20%

• Discussion 15 %
• Report 15 %
• Exam 1 20% Average
25%
• Exam 2 20%
• Attendance (class , online) 10 %

• Presentation 10 %
• Final exam 45%
 Syllabus- general
• Introduction
• Definitions
• Physical and mechanical properties of ore and rocks
• Stages of mining
• Types of mining
• Methods of surface mining
• Methods of subsurface mining
• Mine closure
• Environmental impact of mining
 ‫مالحظات هامة !‬

‫اغالق الموبايل او جعله في وضع الصامت‬ ‫•‬

‫االنتباه الى الدرس سيجعل نسبة االستفادة من المحاظرة اكبر‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫هنالك مجال ( ‪10‬قائق) للدرس االول و (‪5‬دقائق) لبقية الدروس لدخول الصف غير ذلك ال يسمح‬ ‫•‬
‫لدخول الطالب قاعة المحاظرة بتاتا‪.‬‬
‫ستكون لغة المحاظرة واسئلة االمتحانات باللغة االنكليزية ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫في حالة وجود عالمات االستفهام في ذهن الطالب يمكن ان يطلب المساعدة من مدرس المادة‬ ‫•‬
‫حتى ولو خارج القاعة او حتى خارج الكلية‪.‬‬
‫االلتزام بنظافة القاعة والمكان‪.‬‬ ‫•‬

‫شكرا جزيال‬
 1 week
st

INTRODUCTION
Do you think that the mining is important
in our life ?
 Learning outcome
At the end of this lecture the students must be ..
1. Review all about (minerals ,rock cycle, geological time scale.
2. Understand the importance of mining in our life.
Introduction to geology

Geologic time scale

Geological time scale
 Why geological time scale important for
mining ?

• To understand the geological processes at play, and estimate

the potential value of mineral deposits.
• Making a correlation between geological units containing ores
and minerals
Igneous rocks
 Discussion
What is the role of hardness in the mining ?

To determine rate advanced of excavation and choice suitable

methods and tools for excavations.
 QUIZ

1st week quiz to assessment and feed back

(online –google calssrom)
 Mining is important in our lives because most
of the things around us are materials
extracted from under the surface of the Earth.
 We must know and classify the types of
minerals and rocks because we will deal with
them during mining.
Hardness of rocks play importance role in
excavation of rocks .
 2nd week
Terms and definitions related to
mining geology
• To define all terms related to mining geology
• To Distinguishing between them.
 What is mining?
 Mining is extracting ore
or minerals from the
ground

 An ore is a natural
material with a high
concentration of
economically valuable
minerals that can be
mined for a profit.

Give any definition you want

 Mining general terminology

• Mine: an excavation made in the earth to extract minerals.

• Mining engineering: practics applying engineering prinsipels to the

development, planining ,operation, closure and reclamation of mines.

• Ore: a mineral deposit that has sufficient, utility and value to be mined at
a profit.
 Mining general terminology

Gangue (: (‫المواد الغثة‬Mineral materials or grains of no economic

value that are disposed of during mining or mineral extraction
operations
 Activity (G-using internet)

• Mention 5 different type of ore in the world and

their (location ,reserve ,other characterize)
• Choose two types of ore and label at their picture to
recognize (ore ,ganue ,mineral) acceptance time
18/10/ at 12:00a.m
 Mining general terminology

• Waste: the material associated with an ore deposit that must be

mined to get at the ore and must then be discarded. Gangue is a
particular type of waste.

• Overburden :A rock or soil that lies above coal seam or ore body.
may be used to restore an exhausted mining site and its removed
during the surface mining
Mining general terminology
 Mining general terminology

• SHAFT: A vertical or steeply inclined excavation used for

moving workers and materials, hoisting ore and waste, providing
ventilation and provides access for services such as compressed
air, water, power and communications.
 Mining general terminology

Ore grade :it represented the degree of concentration of the

metal and mineral content of the ore within a certain thickness
in the ore body. this concept is considered to express the quality
of the ore and is expressed in percent or p.p.m it is considered
an important factor that must be set to know the degree of
quality of the ore.
cut-off-grade: concentration limit: the lowest concentration at
which mineral deposits or ore can be exploited economically
profitably and the concentration below this limit is neglected, as
the extracted ore is not economically feasible and the cut-off
limit for concentration is variable and not fixed, as it depends on
technological progress and on the increase in the price of ore,
which allows and facilitates the processing and extraction of low-
concentration ores.
Mineral exploration : A set of studies and analysis conducted on ore to
give a decision on whether the metal or ore body can be exploited or invested
with programmed economic feasibility, which is mostly based on an economic
principle, cost, product, sale, profit and marketing ...Etc.
 Mining general terminology

• Decline or Ramp: A large inclined tunnel driven from the

surface to an underground ore body/coal seam.
 Mining general terminology

• Adit: Horizontal tunnel driven into the side of

a mountain to access an orebody.
• Ventilation Raise: Intake (freash air) and
Exhaust (used air).
• Pillar : Rock, typically ore, that is left in place
to act as support
There are many terms that need to be
recognized to make it easier for us to
understand mining well
 3 week
rd

Mining stages
• To define the stages of mining well
• To enumerate the stages of mining well
• To distinguish between different stages of
mining
• To use Geophysical and geochemical principles
and maps to investigate the ore body.
• To design a program to investigate the ores.
 Introduction

• Mining operations or mining activity is not an existing activity

in itself, but is associated with many industrial and
engineering processes and events, scientific and economic
studies, and mining operations include several stages until
reaching the sale of ore or its use for industrial or human
purposes.
 Mining stages

1. The Exploration Stage

2. Stage Sampling
3. Economic feasibility studies
4. Exploitation or Extraction Stage
5. Mineral Dressing
6. Mine Closure and Reclamation
 Mining stages

1- The Exploration Stage

It is a set of activities, studies and geological exploratory and exploratory
processes that lead to determining the location of the ore, its extensions and
placement in the Earth's crust,
A-preliminary studies:-

Ge o
logic
repo al
rts
B- application of geophysical methods
C- Application of geochemical methods
 discussion
• Give an examples about geochemical
geophysical analysis
 Mining stages

2- sampling stage

Rock samples are collected and extracted from rock exposure or by digging
trenches or by drilling core wells or tunnels, under the designation of a network
of samples covering the entire area targeted by mineral exploration operations,
by which the depth, thickness and extensions of mineral deposits are
determined, as well as conducting a geochemical analysis to determine the
degree of ore concentration and make thin section to examine and diagnose the
types of minerals contained within the ore.
 Discussion
• What is the aim of sampling stage ?
To determine depth, thickness and
extension of mineral deposits

How can we collected the samples

from rock exposure ?

by digging trenches or by drilling core

wells or tunnels
Trench and core samples
 Mining stages

3- Economic feasibility studies

It is one of the important stages economically and financially because
it cares about the cost of investment, the profit achieved and the
economic benefit achieved from the exploitation of raw materials.
‫كلفة االستثمار‬ •
‫االرباح المحققة‬ •
‫المنفعة االقتصادية‬ •

But how ?
 Mining stages

3- Economic feasibility studies

Including the following
• Studies of mineral extraction methods.
• Engineering studies for of mining extraction methods.
• Environmental studies.
• Determination and calculation of mineral reserves.
 home work-G
• Give short report (max 1 page) of Economic feasibility studies
for any case you wish in the world and then explain that in the
class.
• Acceptance time (5/11/2023 12:00 a.m )
• Write hand
• Discuss and explain that in the practical class.
• Use the term (Economic feasibility studies for mining in the
world)
 Mining stages

4- Exploitation or Extraction Stage

This stage is associated with the extraction of ores or mineral
deposits from the Earth's interior in several ways, depending on
the specifications of the ore and the nature of the rocks
surrounding it, and its location in the Earth's.

Surface
mining

Underground
mining

Stripping
mining

quarries
4- Exploitation or Extraction Stage
The method of mining extraction is chosen depending on several factors, the most
important of which are:
1. The location of the ore in the Earth's crust, near or far from the Earth's surface.
2. Engineering and geological characteristics of the ore.
3. Geometric and geological characteristics of the rocks surrounding the ore.
4. The shape and size of the ore and its extensions in the Earth's crust.
4- Exploitation or Extraction Stage
The method of mining extraction is chosen depending on several factors, the most
important of which are:

5. Knowledge, practical experience and availability of technology in the country.

6. The cost of invested capital, the volume of production and marketing with the
price of the metal, as well as financial and tax laws.

7. Environmental Determinants, concerns and possible environmental pollution.

8. Laws and instructions on industrial safety.

Safety /technology/ coast
 Activity-G
• What do you know another examples about mining industries safety and
mining cost
• I accepted as hand write with image
• Sent it me at Google classroom after working something in the class.
• Discuss that in the class.
• 10 minute
• Just 1-2 page with images
 4 WEEK
th

Mineral dressing and mine

reclamation
• To understand mineral dressing and mining
closure.
• To enumerate steps of mineral dressing and
mining closure.
• To understand the importance of mineral
dressing and mining closure.
• To applied some cases.
 Mining stages

5- Mineral Dressing
An important stage of mining is the stage in which the dressing
and production of minerals is carried out by separating the
minerals from the waste materials .
 Mining stages

5- Mineral Dressing
The process of separating metals from waste materials extends
through a series of different and multiple processes that depend
on the properties of the metal and the way it exists and its
association with waste materials, which ends up producing
metals of high concentration and purity.
 Questions and feed back

• Define mineral dressing

• Mineral separating from what ?
• Dressing processes depending on ?
 Mineral Dressing steps

A: first step crushing and grinding: of raw rocks coming from the
mine for the purpose of freeing mineral grains from rocks and
associated waste materials and the possibility of exposure to
chemical or physical treatments.
 Mineral Dressing steps

A: first step crushing and grinding:

There are many methods and methods in crushing or grinding
operations in which different crushing or grinding equipment is
used, which depends on the properties of each metal.
 Questions and feed back

• What is the purpose of crushing and grinding ?

• The methods of crushing and grinding
depending on …………………
 Mineral Dressing steps

B. The second step: it is possible to separate the mineral grains

from the waste materials using the sieve analysis process so that
the metal granules are allowed to pass through the sieve
openings Or it can be sent to chemical or physical treatments.
 Mineral Dressing steps

.
C-the third step: the metal separation process can be carried out using
chemical or physical methods, depending on the way the metal responds to
chemical treatments, depending on the recommendation issued by
economic feasibility studies. The most important methods of chemical and
physical treatments are:
• Gravity
• Rotating cyclones .
• Thickening method
• ‫ بالترشيح‬Filtering Method
• ‫ طريقة الفصل بالتجفيف‬Thermal Drying method
• ‫ طريقة الفصل المغناطيسي‬Magnetic Separation
• Electrical Separation
• Flotation Method
 Discussion

• The metal separation processes can be carry

out by chemical and physical methods
depending on ………….. ?
• The most methods of chemical and physical
are ?
 Activity -G

• Search ,find and summarize mineral dressing

steps for any ore for any location
• Explained that in the class
• Send your activity to Google classroom
• I accepted hand write.
 Mining stages

5- Mine Closure and Reclamation:- The final stage of mining is

the mine closure stage, where mines are closed for many
reasons, the most important of which are:
A- Depletion or expiration of the mineral reserve as it was
completely quarried and extracted.
B- The economic factor, which is the decline in the prices of raw
materials and minerals to the point that they no longer cover the
economic costs necessary to extract and mine them.(‫الى درجة لم تعد تغطي تكاليف‬
‫) االقتصادية‬

C- It causes environmental pollution or intersects with land uses

and is closed in accordance with applicable environmental laws
and instructions.
Surface mining
 Quiz
• Quiz evaluated students of week 3 and 4
• Mineral separating from what ?
• Dressing processes depending on
• What is the purpose of crushing and grinding ?
• The methods of crushing and grinding depending on
…………………
• The metal separation processes can be carry out by chemical
and physical methods depending on ………….. ?
• The most methods of chemical and physical are ?
 5 WEEK
th

Physical and mechanical properties

of ore and rocks
• List the mechanical and physical properties of ore and rocks.
• Understand different properties of rocks and ore
• Understand the impact of physical and mechanical properties
with mining processes .
 Evaluation
• Discussion
• Activity
• quiz
 introduction
• Video
• Mineral and various rock formations are
characterized by their physical and mechanical
properties and characteristics that depend
mainly on complex depositional and geological
conditions.
Characterization of rocks

Porosity and
bedding cleavage
jointing

Water saturation
or gas saturation
elasticity strength

Fragility
hardness and stability
friability
 1- bedding

The bedding is considered a factor

of weakness in engineering
application
 2- Cleavage

They are levels of weakness that arise naturally in the

crystalline structure of minerals.
Negative impact: They Positive impact: the
have a negative impact on rock masses and minerals
the durability and stability can be splitting and
of rocks while digging extraction along that
tunnels and mining weakness.
openings in subsurface
mining:
 3- Porosity and Jointing

The characteristic of porosity, The exist of fractures and joints

permeability, fractures, joints, in the rocks make easy of
or cracks, when present in rock excavation , drilling and
formations, increases the splitting in the rocks
heterogeneity in the rock
structures and leads to
instability
‫‪11/20/2023‬‬ ‫أ‪.‬م‪.‬غازي عطية زراك‬ ‫‪101‬‬
 Discussion
• What are the positive and negative impact of bedding ,
• porosity ,
• cleavage
• and fractures on the mining ?
 4- Water Saturation or Gas Saturation

• Water content reduce the strength of

materials . (σ ) total stress =effective stress
)+ pore water pressure (u)
 Discussion

• Water content reduce the strength of

materials . How ?????
How can estimate (total stress, pore water pressure and
effective stress)
problem
 Activity –G
• Calculate (total stress , effective stress) of the A point for following layers
• 10 min
• Inside the class
 Gas Saturation

Which means the ability of rocks to contain mining gases such as methane,
carbon monoxide, or other gases such as hydrogen sulfide, especially if they
are porous, which are released and seep into tunnels during mining drilling.
Their importance lies in their being dangerous and prohibited during
underground mining operations and works, and therefore they must
Establishing an efficient ventilation system that ensures a working mining
environment
 5- Elasticity

• Elasticity is defined as the ability of a material

or rock to return to its original shape and size
after removing the pressure applied to it
Elasticity =
 Activity -G
• Give examples of the impact of
bedding ,fractured , elasticity and water
saturation on the stability of mines, with
pictures, then send them to the Google
Classroom.
 Mining stages

5- Mine Closure and Reclamation:-

Surface mining reclamation (environmental impacts)
A- Leveling the land and restoring its vegetation. Geologists must
plan the mine to consider the closure process and how to reclaim
the land or reuse the mine site and minimize the overall cost of
mining. ‌
B- The mining pit can be used as a tourist facility, especially after
it is filled with water and turned into a tourist lake.
C- The mining pit can be used as a solid waste disposal site so
that prolonged pollution does not occur Water supply or soil
erosion, dust generation, or vegetation problems.
 Mineral Dressing steps

.
 İntroduction to mining
What does a mining engineer
do?
• conduct investigations of mineral
deposits and undertake
evaluations in collaboration with
geologists, other earth scientists
and economists to determine
whether the mineral deposits can
be mined profitably.
• prepare plans for mines,
including tunnels and shafts for
underground operations, and
pits.
• consult with geologists and other
engineers about the design.
• Operate the coast plane whene
mine comes to product.
• Making sure the safety of mines.
• establish first aid and emergency
services facilities.
What does a geologist do?
• By uses geological tools
conduct investigation and
determination the mineral
deposits with mining engineer
and other scientist.
• consult with mining engineer
and other engineers about the
design.
• Prepare a plans for mines
safety .
• Controlled the underground
water level and thier affects on
the mines.
• Consult with other engineers
about the reclamation design.
 İntroduction to mining

Mining engineering , geologist and other engineers together in the mining

 İntroduction of mining

İmportance of mining

 Mining is the only source for the minerals and materials that are required to maintain
the high quality of life we enjoy in the modern high–tech world in which we live.
 İntroduction of mining

İmportance of mining
 How many Minerals are there in a typical Computer ???
İntroduction of mining
 İntroduction of mining

There are 66 individual minerals that contribute to the typical

computer that are identified above
 Relationsheep between mining and geological
formations

Industrial
uses of
ores or
minerals
Regıonal geology map
Local geology map
Cross section
Mining stage program
 Types of mining methods
o Surface mining
o Subsurface mining
Surface mining: Mineral deposits are on or near the surface of the Earth and are removed.
 There are 3 types of surface mines

Open pit quarries

Strip mining
 surface mining/ open pit
Maine open pit properties:
• Open pit mining:is used to work ore bodies that occur at or near the surface where the ore body
is steeply dipping
• Generaly low grade, shallow ore bodies.
• The mining grade grater than 20000 tonnes per day, some times more than that.
• Open pit mining results from tow type of waste, streames and tailings.
• Open pit is no selective, all high and low zones of the orebody are mined.
• The significant design issues of an open pit mine are: location of haul roads, equipment – size of
trucks and fleet, pit slope angle and stability, control of water.(2012 Americaes school of mines) .
• The slopes of a deep pit are cut into a series of locally steep slopes (> 45°) each about 5‐15 m.
• Hight of deeping depending on the stability of the rock and the equipment in use.
• Benches is an area formed at the bottom of each slope to contain any slope failures.
 surface mining/ open pit
Ground water relation:
• The hydrogeological conditions determine whether dewatering is necessary during the operation of a
quarry or open-pit and if it is, then the quantity of water that has to be removed affects the economics
of working.
• Accordingly, groundwater levels should be recorded in drill holes so that a contoured map of the
groundwater surface can be produced.
• In such a situation, it is necessary to determine whether any users of groundwater in the immediate
neighborhood will be affected by a reduction in supply or by the supply being polluted

Dewatering stages
during a open pit
 surface mining/ open pit

Slop stability relation:

• Slop stability İfluenced by :
• Nature of the rock mass, geological structure, hydrogeological condition.
• Slope stability will affect the limits of the excavation and bench dimensions where benches are employed(fig.a).
What are the geological conditions affect?
 Open joints in rock masses facilitate weathering and generally aid slope failure.
 Faults that made may contribute to the instability and failure of faces and benches.
 İf a fault intersects a prominent joint or bedding plane in such a way that it produces a wedge that daylights into
the quarry or pit, then this is likely to slide.(fig2).

 Homework: write a one page summary about the slope stability methods?
 surface mining/ quarreis

 Open-pit mines that produce building materials (stone, crushed rock, sand, gravel ) and
dimension stone are commonly referred to as quarries.
 Many quarries do not use benches, as they are usually shallow:

Methods of working quarries and open pit

• splitting along bedding and/or joint surfaces by using a wedge and feathers.
• drilling a series of closely spaced holes (often with as little as 150 mm spacing between them)
in line in order to split a large block from the face.
• by using a chain saw or a wire saw (the stone is cut by sand fed between the wire and the rock)
or by a diamond impregnated wire saw.
• Flame torch cutting has been used primarily for winning granitic rocks.
Note: technique using above is only way of cutting stone for high stress relief, for
weakened rocks used blasting method.
• If drilling is not carried out properly, then blasts are unable to provide material having the
characteristics required for subsequent operations.
• Optimum drilling therefore is a prerequisite of optimum blasting (Hagan,1986).
 Methods of working quarries and open pit
Open pit mining by blastin Dredge mining is a piece of heavy equipment used
in civil engineering and surface mining.

Diamond saw or wire saw splitting along bedding Drilling/holes

 surface mining/ stripping

• The type of mining carried out mineral deposites stratified that occure at or near the
surface such as coal or sedimantry iron in relatifly flat terrain generally mined by strip or
open cast.
• which can move as much as 12,000 cubic meters of earth per hour.
• There are two forms of strip mining
1. area stripping", which is used on fairly flat terrain
2. Contour stripping" involves removing the overburden above the mineral seam near the outcrop
in hilly terrain

area stripping Contour stripping

 Underground mining

 Underground Mine – Bulk or Selective.

• Significantly less waste needs to be excavated.
• More expensive/challenging
• Numerous mining methods
Underground development

Hanging wall

Foot wall
 Rrelation between open pit and underground
mining

Underground Open pit

deposits Relatively small, high grade Relatively large, low grade

or Deep with sub-vertical ore or Shallow, with sub-horizontal
zone ore
zone

geology Structurally controlled veins and Lithology controlled stockworks,

breccias
Resources / Reserves Generally difficult or not cost
effective to prove up large
resources /reserves
Productivity 500 to 8,000 tonnes per day
disseminated zones.
Generally cost effective to
establish 10 to 15 year resource /
reserve life
5,000 to 100,000 tonnes per day

Environmental Generally easier to permit, limited Large footprint from pit, waste
footprint. Relatively cheap to dumps and tailings, relatively
reclaim expensive to reclaim
Mine Life To >100 years 10 to 25 years, rarely longer
 Mining and environmental affect

1. Surface mining
• Quarries
Advanced
(an additoinal its source of building stone):-
 quarries provide much needed employment opportunities in area whrer jops are often hard to come
bay .
 the increased income means that more money is to be put into the local economey.
 good landscaping of the quarry site once it has been exhausted could enhance the area natural
beauty further.

Eden shopping centre(china clay pit)

 Mining and environmental affect
1. Surface mining
• Quarries
Disadvantages
 Noise and dust pollution from the blasting needed to extract rock.
 Noise and dust pollution from many heavy lorries that will be travelling to and from the quarry every
day.
 Visual pollution from the quarry pit itself. As well as the buildings and slag heaps.
 Pollution from the quarry can run-off into the local rivers and cause problems for local people and
wildlife.
 Wildlife habitats are initially lost when the quarry opens.
 Dust on quarry floors can clog pores in the ground, thus altering ground-water. recharge.
 Mining and environmental affect

(Open bit mining)

 Topographic modifications: including the large-scale removal of soil,

vegetation, and overburden to access ore or other mineral deposits.

 Soils: changes in characteristics through accelerated wind and water

erosion, sharply increased acidity and salt content.

 Surface water: changes in quality, and reduced dry season flows,

stream channel alterations from erosion and slumping, hazardous
chemical leachates (such as sulfates, sulfides, and salts)

http://sob-leaningleft.blogspot.com/2012/03/environmental-consequences-
of-open-pit.html
 Mining and environmental affect

(Open bit mining)

• Groundwater: adverse effects on quality and quantity especially with regard to

dewatering activities, drawdown, and techniques used to control dust and other
particulates as well as acid mine drainage that infiltrates the groundwater system.

• Air quality through discharge from nearby refinery smelter stacks: pollutants include a
variety of particulates, gases that contribute to acid rain, metal vapors, noxious odors,
etc., including lead and copper toxicity affecting livestock, wildlife, and human
populations from air-borne particulates.

• Chemical residues: especially those from acids, explosives, and radionuclides. Tailings
ponds may frequently be toxic due to the presence of unextracted sulfide minerals in
the tailings or gangue (commercially valueless material in which ore is found).

• Flora and fauna: alterations to and loss of native habitats for indigenous fauna and
flora, vegetation cover, invasion by alien plant/animal species, altered plant community
species composition, contamination and destruction of entire food web.
 Mining and environmental affect

Surface mining
 Mining and environmental affect

• Underground mining: causes huge amounts of waste earth and

rock to be brought to the surface – waste that often becomes
toxic when it comes into contact with air and water.
• It causes subsidence as mines collapse and the land above it
starts to sink. This causes serious damage to buildings.

(caving caused by underground mine voids which damages property and poses danger to human safety)
 Mining reclamation

DEFİNİTİON:The PROCESS OF RETURNING AN AREA, DISTURBED by MINING, TO ITS

NATURAL ECONOMICAL and ECOLOGICAL STATE, OR TO A STATE SUITABLE FOR
EQUIVALENT OR SUPERIOR USE OR BENEFIT.
• The main goal of reclamation is to return affected areas as near as possible to their
economical and ecological value. It does not aim to return them to original state (UNEP,
1983).
• Why is it necessary?
• The nature is not heritage came us from our grandfather but its entrust thas we must our
childerin gives.
• Reclamation planning should be performed in:
 Early mining stage
 Routine mining stage
 Post-closure mining stage
With my best wishes