International University

School of Electrical Engineering

Electronics Devices
Lecture # 1

Nguyen Binh Duong, Room O2.206

Email: nbduong@hcmiu.edu.vn

Textbook: Microelectronic Circuit Design, A.S.Sedra & K.C.

Smith, 6th ed., Oxford University Press.
 Applications of Electronic Devices

Chips…

Sand…
Chips on Silicon wafers
 ICs and Applications

Processors
–CPU, DSP, Controllers
Memory chips
–RAM, ROM, EEPROM
Analog
–Mobile,
Audio/video processing
Programmable
–PLA, FPGA
Embedded systems
–Vehicles’s comonents,
Factories’ equipments
–Network cards
System-on-chip (SoC)

Electrical appliances
 History of Development

Audion (Triode)
1906
1906 1906, Lee De Forest
1906 Lee de Forest (“Triode”)
Vacuum tube devices continued to
evolve
1940 Russel Ohl (PN junction)
1947 Bardeen and Brattain (Transistor)

1947
1947

First point contact transistor

(germanium)
1947, John Bardeen and
Walter Brattain
Bell Laboratories
 History of Development (cont.)

1958
1950 William Shockley (Junction transistor)
1952 Single crystal silicon is fabricated
1954 First commercial silicon transistor
1954 First transistor radio (Regency TR-1)
1955 First field effect transistor - FET
1952 Geoffrey W. A. Dummer (IC concept)
First integrated circuit 1954 Oxide masking process developed
(germanium), 1958
Jack S. Kilby, Texas 1958 Jack Kilby (Integrated circuit)
Instruments

Contained five
components, three
types:
transistors resistors
and capacitors
 History of Development (cont.)

1959 Planar technology invented

1960 First MOSFET fabricated
–At Bell Labs by Kahng
1961 First commercial ICs
–Fairchild and Texas Instruments
1963 CMOS invented
–Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor
–U. S. patent # 3,356,858
–Standby power reduced by six orders of magnitude
 History of Development (cont.)

• 1982 Intel 80286

1971 Microprocessor invented
–Intel produces the first 4-bit
microprocessor the 4004
–The 4004 was a 3 chip set
• 2 kbit ROM IC
First • 320 bit RAM IC
• 4-bit processor
• Each housed in a 16-pin
DIP package
–Processor:
• 2000 Pentium 4
• 10 m silicon gate PMOS
process
• ~2300 transistors
• Clock speed: 0.108 MHz
• Die size: 13.5 mm2
2000 Pentium 4
 2006 0.13 µm silicon gate
– 1.5 m silicon gate
CMOS process
– 1 polysilicon layer
– 2 metal layers
– 134,000 transistors
– 6 to 12 MHz clock
speed
– Die size 68.7 mm2
– 0.18 m silicon gate
CMOS process
– 1 polysilicon layer
– 6 metal layers
– Fabrication: 21 mask
layers
– 42,000,000
transistors
– 1,400 to 1,500 MHz
clock speed
– Die size 224 mm2
CMOS process
MOORE’s Law
 Then (C64, 1983) and (iPhone, 2013)

• 5000 nanometer process • 45 nanometer process

• 1.023 MHz (CPU)
• 10,000s of transistors
• 160 x 200 x 16 color display
• $1300 dollars at release
(adjusted for inflation)
• A7 quad-core processor
• 100,000,000 transistors
• 4.8 Retina+ 1080 HD
resolution display
• > $600 dollars at release
Electron Microscope view of MOS Transistor

Insulating Layer (gate

oxide) now just 1.2 nm
thick

For reference:
Human hair: 100,000 nm
Silicon atom: 0.1 nm

32 nm wide
 Course Information

1. Grading criterion
 30% for quizzes, homework and assignments
 30% for midterm examination
 40% for final examination
 Lecture notes can be found on the Blackboard
2. Relationship to Other Modules
 Pre-requisite: Principle of EE1
 Co-requisite: Electronics Devices Lab
 Reference

- Text book: A.S.Sedra and K.C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits,

5th ed. or 6th ed., Oxford University Press.
(First 6 chapters)

- Other references:
1. Ben G. Streetman & Sanjay Banerjee, Solid State Electronic Devices,
6th ed., Prentice Hall.
2. Lecture Notes

We will cover from Sedra & Smith:

Chapter 1 - Read all of it. This material is important. Some of it will
make more sense later in the semester.
 Course Information

Laboratory:
1.The laboratory is a big part of this course. Learning comes
from doing.
2.We will find ways to have you do things, so that you can
learn.
3.The communications skills parts of this course also comes
in the laboratory.
4.The formal report, team projects, and oral presentations
will happen in the lab.
 Contents

 Introduction to Electronic components

 Passive Components
 Operational Amplifiers
 Semiconductor Physics, Junctions
 Diodes
 Bipolar Junction Transistor BJT
 Field Effect Transistor FET
 Integrated Circuit (ICs)
 Lecture 1 –
Introduction to Electronic Devices
 Lecture 1 – Introduction to Electronic Devices

1. Overview
2. Device Classifications
3. Electronic materials
 1. Overview

• The word electric is derived from the Greek elektron (Latin electrum)
denoting amber.
• It was discovered in ancient times that when amber is rubbed it
attracts feathers, dried leaves, etc.
• This is due to the amber becoming charged (discovered much later).
• These are the roots of our subject.

• If we take a AA battery and a paperclip and connect the two terminals, it

heats up
• If we stick the same paperclip into the wall outlet and get it to actually stay
there, it will heat up much more (and then melt)
• This heat is due to the flow of electrical current driven by the voltage
provided by the source
o As electrons bump into neighboring electrons, they get jostled
around. This is exactly what heat is
 Current
 Electrical Current is simply a measure of the net amount of
positive charge that passes a plane in space per second in a
reference direction
 For convenience, the base unit is 1 Ampere, which is 1.6x1019
charges/sec or 1 Coulomb/sec

i = dq/dt where
q = charge (Coulombs)
t = time (in seconds)

André-Marie Ampère's
1775-1836
 Electric Current Examples

1. 105 positively charged hydrogen ions (each with charge

1.6×10-19 C) pass the perpendicular plane in space to the
right (+x direction) every nanosecond. What is the
current to the right?

2. 105 electrons (each with charge -1.6×10-19 C) pass the

perpendicular plane in space to the right (+x direction)
every nanosecond. What is the current to the right?
 Electric Current Summary

• Definition: Rate of positive charge flow in a reference

direction
• Symbol: I
• Units: Ampere (A) = 1 Coulomb/second

• Simply the net amount of charge/second passing

through a plane perpendicular to the direction of flow
 Voltage

• The voltage between two points in space is simply the

amount of energy (in Joules) that it would take to move 1
Coulomb of charge between those two points
• Example: There is a uniform electric field pulling
electrons to the left at 9.8 Newtons/Coulomb. How much
energy would it take to move this charge 2 meters to the
right?
Energy = Force*Distance
 Analogy to Gravity

Example:
o There is a uniform gravitational field pulling some matter
downwards at 9.8 Newtons/kg. How much energy/kg would it
take to move this matter 2 meters upwards?
 Electric Potential (Voltage)

Definition: energy per unit charge

Symbol: v
Units: Joules/Coulomb ≡ Volts (V)
Alessandro Volta
v = dw/dq (1745–1827)

where w = energy (in Joules), q = charge (in Coulombs)

Note: Potential is always referenced to some point.

a Subscript convention:
vab means the potential at a
minus the potential at b.
b vab ≡ va - vb
 Electric Power

• Definition: transfer of energy per unit time

• Symbol: p
• Units: Joules per second ≡ Watts (W)

p = dw/dt = (dw/dq)(dq/dt) = vi

• Concept:
As a positive charge q moves through a
drop in voltage v, it loses potential energy
 Voltage is Joules/Coulomb
 Current is Coulombs/second
 Power is the product of these
 Summary

• So far:
– Current: Number of positive charges per second
passing a plane in a particular direction
– Current density: Current per unit area
– Voltage: Amount of energy per Coulomb to move a
charge between two points
– Power: Amount of energy per second

• Where do these quantities arise?

– When we build networks of electrical components
 Voltage Sources

• One of the fundamental devices in electrical engineering

is the voltage source
– Batteries
– Generators
• Provide a consistent voltage difference between two
points in space
• If a charge is at the “top” of the voltage, a force will try to
move it towards the “bottom”
• Positive and negative charges will move in opposite
directions given the same voltage
• “Positive” terminal of a voltage source
– High potential for a positive charge
– Low potential for a negative charge
Circuit Elements
Electrical Sources
Ideal Voltage Source
Ideal Current Source
Electrical Resistance
Electrical Conductance
Short Circuit and Open Circuit
Example: Power Absorbed by a Resistor
 Our First Circuit

• Imagine that we have an ideal voltage source connected

to a piece of metal. What happens?
– Electrons at the negative terminal travel towards the positive
terminal
– These electrons will encounter some resistance as they travel
generating heat
– The current of the electrons will be a function of this resistance
and the original voltage
 Ohm’s Law

• Ohm* discovered in 1825 that for many materials,

voltage and current are related by a simple linear
relationship: V=IR
• Here the “resistance” is a bulk property of the object
connecting the two terminals of a voltage source and is
empirically derived
– Measured in Ohms
• Any material which obeys Ohm’s Law is called a
“resistor”

*: Cavendish was first in 1781, but didn’t publish. Take note.

 Ohm’s Law

• Ohm’s law doesn’t always work

• Consider your wall outlet with terminals connected by a
gaseous mixture of mostly nitrogen and oxygen
– There is no current flow
– With a high enough voltage, called the breakdown voltage,
current will eventually flow (via a spark, a.k.a. lightning)
– Such phenomena are beyond the scope of this course
 Circuit Schematics

• Ohm’s law paved the way for simple circuit schematics

• We can model circuits as a series of interconnected
discrete components or ideal basic circuit elements
– For now, each component can be characterized with a single
physical parameter

• Combinations of ideal basic circuit elements

• A (high resistance) paperclip connecting the terminals of a 10 volt
battery can be schematically represented as shown below
 Summary

• Current = rate of charge flow

• Voltage = energy per unit charge created by
charge separation
• Power = energy per unit time
• Ideal Basic Circuit Element
– 2-terminal component that cannot be sub-divided
– Described mathematically in terms of its terminal voltage and
current
• Circuit Schematics
– Networks of ideal basic circuit elements
– Equivalent to a set of algebraic equations
– Solution provides voltage and current through all elements of the
circuit
 Construction of a Circuit Model

 The electrical behavior of each physical

component is of primary interest.
 We need to account for undesired as well as
desired electrical effects.
 Simplifying assumptions should be made
wherever reasonable.
Terminology: Nodes and Branches
 Circuit Nodes and Loops

 A node is a point where two or more circuit

elements are connected.
 A loop is formed by tracing a closed path in a
circuit through selected basic circuit elements
without passing through any intermediate node
more than once
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Notation: Node and Branch Voltages
Using Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Formulations of Kirchhoff’s Current Law
A Major Implication of KCL
KCL Example
Generalization of KCL
Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Formulations of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
KVL Example
Summary
Passive Components
 Passive Components

1. Resistor
2. Capacitor
3. Inductor
4. Transformer
 1. Resistor
Definition:
One of the three basic passive components of an electric circuit that displays a
voltage drop across its terminals and produces heat when an electric current
passes through it. The electrical resistance, measured in ohms, is equal to the
ratio of the voltage drop across the resistor terminals measured in volts
divided by the current measured in amperes.

Or:
An electronic component that resists the flow of current in an electronic
circuit. Resistors may be discrete components mounted on a printed circuit
board or built into the chip by the thousands.
 1. Resistor
Physical model of Resistor

Symbol

Normal resistor

Light dependent resistor

Power resistor
Rheostat
(variable resistor)
 1. Resistor
Resistor characteristics

l
Resistance (Ohm) : R
A
: resistivity (.cm)
l: length of resistor (cm)
A:cross-sectional area current flow (cm2)

Good resistor materials have 2×10-6  200×10-6 .cm

The resistance of a resistor can be defined in terms of the voltage drop across
the resistor and current throughthe resistor related by Ohm’s law:

V R is the resistance (), V is the voltage across the resistor (V), and
R I is the current through the resistor (A).
I
Unit of resistor: , m, , k, M, G, T
 1. Resistor
Resistor characteristics Resistor Tolerance

Rmeas.  Rnorm.
100%
Rnorm.

Five tolerance levels:

Level 005: tolerance  0,5 %
Level 01: tolerance  1 %
Level I: tolerance  5 %
Level II: tolerance  10 %
Level III: tolerance  20 %
 1. Resistor
Resistor characteristics TCR (temperature coefficient of resistance)

TCR is expressed as the change in resistance in ppm ( .0001%) with each

degree of change in temperature Celsius (oC).

Normally a resistor with a TCR of 100 ppm will change 0.1% over a 10 degree
change and 1% over a 100 degree change. The expression of ppm , one part in
a million is similar to percent or 1 part in 100 (or percentile).

1 R R
TCR  . .106 [ppm/ 0 C] R   TCR.T
R T 10 6
 1. Resistor
Resistor characteristics Resistor noise

Thermal noise: caused by the

transportation of charged carrier inside
resistor  yield thermal

E RMS  4.k .R.T .f

ERMS = the Root-Mean-Square or RMS voltage level
k = Boltzmans constant (1.38∙10-23)
T = temperature in Kelvin (Room temp = 27 °C = 300 K)
R = resistance
Δf = Circuit bandwidth in Hz

Current noise: caused by the current flows inside resistor

 f2  U 
ERMS  U DC .10 NI / 20
log  NI  20 log10  noise 
 f1   U DC 
 1. Resistor
Resistor characteristics
Power dissipation: the power dissipated by a resistor
is the voltage across the resistor multiplied by the
current through the resistor

Series and parallel circuits:

•Resistors in a parallel. The total •Resistors in series. The total equivalent
equivalent resistance (Req): resistance (Req):
 1. Resistor
Some types of resistor:

1/4W resistors

Power
resistors

There are a wide variety of resistors in use. They can also be built into the circuits of the chip.
 1. Resistor
Some types of resistor:

Potentiometers, or Carbon composition Carbon film Metal film High Power

"trimpots" (wire wound; ceramic)

Surface Mount Thermistor Varistor Light dependent

Resistors (SMR) resistor (LDR)
 1. Resitor

Resistor Color Code Guide http://xtronics.com/kits/rcode.htm

1. Resitor
1. Resitor
 1. Resitor
Classification of resistors
The composition resistor is in wide use because of its low cost, high reliability, and small size. Basically it is a
mixture of resistive materials, usually carbon, and a suitable binder molded into a cylinder. Copper wire leads are
attached to the ends of the cylinder, and the entire resistor is molded into a plastic or ceramic jacket. Composition
resistors are commonly used in the range from several ohms to 10–20 MΩ, and are available with tolerances of 20,
10, or 5%.
The film-type resistor is now the preferred type for most electronic applications because its performance has
surpassed that of composition resistors and mass-production techniques have reduced the cost to a comparable level.
Basically this resistor consists of a thin conducting film of carbon, metal, or metal oxide deposited on a cylindrical
ceramic or glass former. The resistance is controlled by cutting a helical groove through the conducting film. This
helical groove increases the length and decreases the width of the conducting path, thereby determining its ohmic
value. By controlling the conductivity, thickness of the film, and pitch of the helix, resistors over a wide range of
values can be manufactured. Film construction is used for very high value resistors, up to and even beyond 1 TΩ
(1012 ohms).
Wire remains the most stable form of resistance material available; therefore, all high-precision instruments rely
upon wire-wound resistors. Wire also will tolerate operation at high temperatures, and so compact high-power
resistors use this construction. Power resistors are available in resistance values from a fraction of an ohm to several
hundred thousand ohms, at power ratings from one to several thousand watts, and at tolerances from 10 to 0.1%.
The usual design of a power resistor is a helical winding of wire on a cylindrical ceramic former. After winding, the
entire resistor is coated in vitreous enamel. Alternatively, the wound element may be fitted inside a ceramic or metal
package, which will assist in heat dissipation. The helical winding results in the resistor having significant
inductance, which may become objectionable at the higher audio frequencies and all radio frequencies. Precision
wire-wound resistors are usually wound in several sections on ceramic or plastic bobbins and are available in the
range from 0.1 Ω to 10 MΩ.
 1. Resitor
Classification of resistors
Integrated circuit resistors must be capable of fabrication on a silicon integrated circuit chip along with transistors and
capacitors. There are two major types: thin-film resistors and diffused resistors. Thin-film resistors are formed by
vacuum deposition or sputtering of nichrome, tantalum, or Cermet (Cr-SiO). Such resistors are stable, and the
resistance may be adjusted to close tolerances by trimming the film by using a laser. Typical resistor values lie in the
range from 100 Ω to 10 kΩ with a matching tolerance of ±0.2% and a temperature coefficient of resistance of ±10 to
±200 ppm/°C.
Diffused resistors are based upon the same fabrication geometry and techniques used to produce the active transistors
on the silicon chip or die. A diffused base, emitter, or epitaxial layer may be formed as a bar with contacts at its
extremities. The resistance of such a semiconductor resistor depends upon the impurity doping and the length and
cross section of the resistor region. In the case of the base-diffused resistor, the emitter and collector regions may be
formed so as to pinch the base region to a very small cross-sectional area, thereby appreciably increasing the
resistance. The relatively large impurity carrier concentration in n- and p-type regions limits the resistance value.
Resistor values between 100 Ω and 10 kΩ are common.
The deposited-film and wire-wound resistors lend themselves to the design of adjustable resistors or rheostats and
potentiometers. Adjustable-slider power resistors are constructed in the same manner as any wire-wound resistor on a
cylindrical form except that when the vitereous outer coating is applied an uncovered strip is provided. The resistance
wire is exposed along this strip, and a suitable slider contact can be used to adjust the overall resistance, or the slider
can be used as the tap on a potentionmetert. See also Potentiometer; Rheostat.
 2. Capacitor

Definition:
A capacitor is an electrical device that can store energy in the electric field
between a pair of closely-spaced conductors (called 'plates'). When voltage is
applied to the capacitor, electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite
polarity, build up on each plate.

http://www.uoguelph.ca/~antoon/gadgets/caps/caps.html
 2. Capacitor
Physical model of Capacitor: A capacitor consists of two conductive electrodes, or plates,
separated by an insulator.

When electric charge accumulates on the plates, an

electric field is created in the region between the
plates that is proportional to the amount of
accumulated charge. This electric field creates a
potential difference V = E·d between the plates of
this simple parallel-plate capacitor.

+ +
Symbols: + +

capacitor Polarized Variable

capacitors capacitor
 2. Capacitor
Capacitor characteristics:
Capacitance: is a measure of the amount of Q
C
electric charge stored (or separated) for a given V
electric potential.

In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad (F) when one coulomb of
charge is stored due to one volt applied potential difference across the plates. Since
the farad is a very large unit, values of capacitors are usually expressed in
microfarads (µF), nanofarads (nF), or picofarads (pF).

A
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by C , A  d 2
d
where ε is the permittivity of the dielectric, A is the area of the plates and d is the
spacing between them.
ε = εrε0,
εr :permitivity of dielectric material; ε0: vaccum permitivity 8.84×10-12
 2. Capacitor
Capacitor characteristics:
RP RL
L RS RS

C
C C
Equivalent circuit Equivalent circuit Equivalent circuit
(in parallel) (in series)

L – inductance connection of wire’s terminals (@ low frequency L  0)

RS– resistance of terminals, wire, and plates (R S usually very small)
RP – Leaking resistance of the dielectric materials & cover.
RL, RS - Leaking resistance of the dielectric materials
C - ideal capacitor
2. Capacitor

Capacitors: SDM ceramic

at top left; SMD tantalum
at bottom left; through-
hole tantalum at top right;
through-hole electrolytic
at bottom right. Major
scale divisions are cm.

Surface mount technology (SMT)

 2. Capacitor

Various types of capacitors.

tantalum Polyester High

Polypropylene
capacitor Capacitor capacitor Voltage/power
Capacitors

Multilayer Chip
Variable Tuning/Air
Ceramic Capacitor Motor Running &
Capacitor Variable
Start Capacitors
Capacitor
 2. Capacitor

Paper capacitor (300pF - Mica capacitor Ceramic Capacitor (1pF -0.01µF);

max 30kVolts
4µF); max 600Volts (50pF -0.02µF)

Top view of MEMS capacitor built at

(Aluminum) Electrolytic Oil capacitor (nF –sevaral Stanford. The resonant frequency is
Capacitor; (4µF ~ sevaral hundred µF) several ten Kvolts 1.64 MHz with a Q of 18
thousand F); max 500Volts
 2. Capacitor

Capacitor Code Guide

The 3 numbers: It is somewhat similar to the resistor code. The first two are the 1st and 2nd
significant digits and the third is a multiplier code. Most of the time the last digit tells you how
many zeros to write after the first two digits, but the standard (EIA standard) has a couple of
curves that you probably will never see. But just to be complete here it is in a table.

Ex: A capacitor marked 104 is 10 with 4

more zeros or 100,000pF which is
otherwise referred to as a .1 µF capacitor.

EIA = Electronic Industrial Association

http://xtronics.com/kits/ccode.htm
 2. Capacitor

Capacitor Code Guide - EIA Capacitance Code

So a 103J is a 10,000 pF with +/-5% tolerance

 2. Capacitor

Capacitor Code Guide – Color code

Some values are indicated with a colour code similar to resistors. There can be some confusion.
A 2200pf capacitor would have three red bands. These merge into one wide red band.

Some values are marked in picofarads using three digit numbers. The first two digits are the base
number and the third digit is a multiplier.
For example, 102 is 1000 pF and 104 is 100,000 pF = 100 nF = 0.1 uF.
Colored dots are used to indicate the value of the capacitor. A mica capacitor, it should be noted, may
be marked with either three dots or six dots. Both the three- and the six-dot codes are similar, but the
six-dot code contains more information about electrical ratings of the capacitor, such as working
voltage and temperature coefficient.

According to the above coding, the capacitor is a mica capacitor whose

capacitance is 1200 pF with a tolerance of 6%.
 2. Capacitor

Capacitors in series
 2. Capacitor

Capacitors in paralell
 2. Capacitor

DC sources is applied:
DC voltage V is directly proportional to the amount of charge separated Q. Since the current I
through the capacitor is the rate at which charge Q is forced through the capacitor (dQ/dt), this can
be expressed as:
I is the current flowing in the conventional direction, A,
dV/dt is the time derivative of voltage, V/sec,
C is the capacitance, F.

AC sources is applied:
The current through a capacitor due to an AC
source reverses direction periodically. Since
the voltage across a capacitor is proportional
to the integral of the current, with sine waves
in AC or signal circuits  a phase difference
of 90 degrees, the current leading the voltage
phase angle. It can be shown that the AC
voltage across the capacitor is in quadrature
with the alternating current through the
capacitor. Figure- Phase relationship of voltage and current in a
capacitive circuit.
 2. Capacitor

Impedance:

The ratio of the phasor voltage across a circuit element to the phasor current through that
element is called the impedance Z. For a capacitor, the impedance is given by

is the capacitive reactance

is the angular frequency
f is the frequency
C is the capacitance F
j is the imaginary unit
 2. Capacitor

Capacitor Impedance
 2. Capacitor
Capacitor applications
Energy storage: A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging
circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic
devices to maintain power supply while batteries are being changed.
Capacitors are used in power supplies where they smooth the output of a full or half wave rectifier.
They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the energy storage element in the generation of
higher voltages than the input voltage.

Filtering
Signal de-coupling: Because capacitors pass AC but block DC signals (when charged up to the
applied dc voltage), they are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This
method is known as AC de-coupling. Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not be
accurately controlled, but whose reactance is small at the signal frequency, is employed.

Noise filters, motor starters, and snubbers: When an inductive circuit is opened, the current
through the inductance collapses quickly, creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the
switch or relay. If the inductance is large enough, the energy will generate a spark, causing the
contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, or sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state
switch. A snubber capacitor across the newly opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to
bypass the contact points, thereby preserving their life.
 2. Capacitor
Capacitor applications
To initiate current quickly through an inductive circuit requires a greater voltage than required to
maintain it; in uses such as large motors, this can cause undesirable startup characteristics, and a
motor starting capacitor is used to increase the coil current to help start the motor.

Signal processing
Tuned circuits: Capacitors and inductors are applied together in tuned circuits to select
information in particular frequency bands. For example, radio receivers rely on variable capacitors
to tune the station frequency. Speakers use passive analog crossovers, and analog equalizers use
capacitors to select different audio bands.
Sensing: Ex: Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielectric can be used to measure humidity
in air; Capacitors are used to accurately measure the fuel level in airplanes. Capacitors with a
flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure.
Pulsed power and weapons

Hazards and safety: Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a
circuit; this charge can cause shocks (sometimes fatal) or damage to connected equipment. For
example, even a seemingly innocuous device such as a disposable camera flash unit powered by a
1.5 volt battery contains a capacitor which may be charged to over 300 volts. This is easily
capable of delivering an extremely painful, and possibly lethal shock.
 3. Inductor

Definition: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor
An inductor is a passive electrical device employed in electrical circuits for its property of
inductance. An inductor can take many forms.
Or
An inductor is a coil of wire through which a current is passed. The current can be either
AC or DC.
 3. Inductor
Physical model of inductor

Symbol

L L L

Feritte core coil Magnetic core coil Air core coil

 3. Inductor
Inductor characteristics
Inductance (or electric inductance) is a measure of the amount of magnetic
flux produced for a given electric current. The SI unit of inductance is the
henry (H), in honor of Joseph Henry. The symbol L is used for inductance,
possibly in honour of the physicist Heinrich Lenz.

L is the inductance in H, mH, µH

The inductance (called
i is the current in A,
self-inductance) Φ is the magnetic flux in Wb (webers)
The inductance (when
S
a conductor is coiled- L   .N 2 .
solenoid) l

S – coil’s cross-sectional (m2)

N – number of coil; l – length of coil (m)
- permeability of coil’s core (H/ m).  = r×0 ,
μ0 - permeability of free space (4π × 10-7 H/m) ;
μr - relative permeability of the core (dimensionless)
 3. Inductor

A core material with greater magnetic

permeability results in greater magnetic
field flux for any given amount of field
force (amp-turns).

Variable inductors: providing a way
to vary the number of wire turns in
use at any given time, or by varying
the core material (a sliding core that
can be moved in and out of the coil).
Fixed-value inductor: another
antique air-core unit built for
radios. The connection terminals
can be seen at the bottom, as well
as the few turns of relatively thick
wire
Inductor (of greater inductance
value), also intended for radio
applications. Its wire coil is
wound around a white ceramic
tube for greater rigidity
 3. Inductor

Permeability of several materials:

Vaccum: 4 x 10-7 H/m Ferrite T38 1.26x10-2 H/m
Air: 1.257x10-6 H/m Ferrite U M33 9.42x10-4 H/m
Nickel 7.54x10-4 H/m Iron 6.28x10-3 H/m
Silicon GO steel 5.03x10-2 H/m supermalloy 1.26 H/m

Inductors in a parallel each have the same potential

difference (voltage). Total equivalent inductance
(Leq):

The current through inductors in series stays the

same, but the voltage across each inductor can be
different. The sum of the potential differences
(voltage) is equal to the total voltage. Total
equivalent inductance (Leq):
 3. Inductor
Inductor in electric circuits:
In general, the relationship between the time-varying voltage
v(t) across an inductor with inductance L and the time-
varying current i(t) passing through it is described by the
differential equation:
di
v(t )   L
dt
When there is a sinusoidal alternating current (AC) through
an inductor, an AC voltage is induced. The amplitude of the
voltage is proportional to the product of the amplitude (I P) of
the current and the frequency (f) of the current.

Figure - Comparison of sine wave and

In this situation, the phase of the current lags that circle in an inductive circuit.
of the voltage by 90 degrees.
 3. Inductor
Impedance:
Inductive reactance XL , the
impedance of an inductor to an AC
signal, is found by the equation
XL = 2f L
XL = inductive reactance, ; f
= frequency, Hz; and
L = inductance, H.

Mutual Inductance
Mutual inductance is the property that exists
between two conductors carrying current when
their magnetic lines of force link together.

The mutual inductance of two coils with fields

interacting can be determined by the equation

M = mutual inductance of LA and LB, H; LA = total inductance, H, of coils L1 and L2 with

fields aiding; and LB = total inductance, H, of coils L1 and L2 with fields opposing.
 3. Inductor
Quality factor (Q)

The quality factor of an inductor is the ratio of its inductive reactance to its
resistance at a given frequency (), and is a measure of its efficiency.
The higher the Q factor of the inductor, the closer it approaches the behavior
of an ideal, lossless, inductor.
L RS

The Q factor of an inductor can be found

through the following formula, where RS is its L 2fL X L
internal electrical resistance Q  
RS RS RS
XL = inductive reactance of the coil ()
 3. Inductor
Working frequency

When working frequency is small enough, the paracitic capacitors between

coils of inductor is negligible. But at high frequency, these parasitic capacitors
cannot be ignored.
At high frequency, the inductor become a parallel resonant circuit. The
resonance of this circuit called self-resonance frequency f0 .
At higher frequency, f > f0, the coil has more capacitive property. Thus, the
maximum frequency of the coil should less than f0.

1
f max  f 0 
2 LC
 3. Inductor
Inductor code guide
 3. Inductor

Power Inductor Ferrite Rod Inductor SMD Wound Chip Inductor

Roller inductor for FM DC filter choke Spiral inductor with N=1.5 turns,
W=20 μm, S=10 μm and Rin=100 μm
diplexer Inductor
(area=0.14 mm2).
(called On-chip inductor)
 3. Inductor
Inductor applications
Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits and signal processing. Inductors in conjunction with capacitors and
other components form tuned circuits which can emphasize or filter out specific signal frequencies. This can range
from the use of large inductors as chokes in power supplies, now obsolete, which in conjunction with filter
capacitors remove residual hum or other fluctuations from the direct current output, to such small inductances as
generated by a ferrite bead or torus around a cable to prevent RF interferecnce from being transmitted down the wire.
Smaller inductor/capacitor combinations provide tuned circuits used in radio reception and broadcasting, for
instance.
Two (or more) inductors which have coupled magnetic flux form a transformer, which is a fundamental component
of every electric utility power grid. The efficiency of a transformer decreases as the frequency increases but size can
be decreased as well; for this reason, aircraft used 400 hertz alternating current rather than the usual 50 or 60 hertz,
allowing a great savings in weight from the use of smaller transformers.
An inductor is used as the energy storage device in a switched-mode power supply. The inductor is energized for a
specific fraction of the regulator's switching frequency, and de-energized for the remainder of the cycle. This energy
transfer ratio determines the input-voltage to output-voltage ratio. This XL is used in complement with an active
semiconductor device to maintain very accurate voltage control.
Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission systems, where they are used to intentionally depress system
voltages or limit fault current. In this field, they are more commonly referred to as reactors.
As inductors tend to be larger and heavier than other components, their use has been reduced in modern equipment;
solid state switching power supplies eliminate large transformers, for instance, and circuits are designed to use only
small inductors, if any; larger values are simulated by use of gyrator circuits.
 4. Transformer
Definition:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another by magnetic coupling without requiring relative motion between its
parts. It usually comprises two or more coupled windings, and, in most cases, a
core to concentrate magnetic flux.
 4. Transformer
Physical model Symbol
 4. Transformer

Parts (B) and (C) show iron-core transformers. The bars between the coils are used to indicate an iron
core. Frequently, additional connections are made to the transformer windings at points other than the
ends of the windings. These additional connections are called TAPS. When a tap is connected to the
center of the winding, it is called a CENTER TAP.
 4. Transformer
Capacitor characteristics:
BASIC OPERATION OF A TRANSFORMER
In its most basic form a transformer consists of:
•A primary coil or winding.
•A secondary coil or winding.
•A core that supports the coils or windings.

Refer to the transformer circuit in figure as you read the following explanation: The primary winding
is connected to a 60 hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux) builds up (expands) and
collapses (contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and contracting magnetic field
around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding and induces an alternating voltage into the
winding. This voltage causes alternating current to flow through the load. The voltage may be
stepped up or down depending on the design of the primary and secondary windings.
The principle parts of a transformer and their functions are:
•The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.
•The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source.
•The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary winding and delivers it to the
load.
•The ENCLOSURE, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture, and mechanical damage.
 4. Transformer

CORE CHARACTERISTICS
TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
The figure shows an exploded view of a shell-type
transformer. The primary is wound in layers directly on a
rectangular cardboard form.

Fig - Exploded view of shell-type

transformer construction

In the transformer shown in the cutaway view in fig., the

Fig - Cutaway view of shell-type core
with windings.
primary consists of many turns of relatively small wire. The
wire is coated with varnish so that each turn of the winding is
insulated from every other turn. In a transformer designed for
high-voltage applications, sheets of insulating material, such
as paper, are placed between the layers of windings to
provide additional insulation.
 4. Transformer

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PHASE RELATIONSHIP

The secondary voltage of a simple transformer may be either in phase or out of phase with the primary
voltage. This depends on the direction in which the windings are wound and the arrangement of the
connections to the external circuit (load). Simply, this means that the two voltages may rise and fall
together or one may rise while the other is falling.
Transformers in which the secondary voltage is in phase with the primary are referred to as LIKE-
WOUND transformers, while those in which the voltages are 180 degrees out of phase are called
UNLIKE-WOUND transformers. Dots are used to indicate points on a transformer schematic symbol
that have the same instantaneous polarity (points that are in phase).
 4. Transformer

COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING
The COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING of a transformer is dependent on the portion of the total flux lines
that cuts both primary and secondary windings.
Ideally, all the flux lines generated by the primary should cut the secondary, and all the lines of the flux
generated by the secondary should cut the primary.
The coefficient of coupling would then be one (unity), and maximum energy would be transferred from
the primary to the secondary. Practical power transformers use high-permeability silicon steel cores
and close spacing between the windings to provide a high coefficient of coupling.
Lines of flux generated by one winding which do not link with the other winding are called LEAKAGE
FLUX. Since leakage flux generated by the primary does not cut the secondary, it cannot induce a
voltage into the secondary.
The voltage induced into the secondary is therefore less than it would be if the leakage flux did not
exist. Since the effect of leakage flux is to lower the voltage induced into the secondary, the effect can
be duplicated by assuming an inductor to be connected in series with the primary. This series
LEAKAGE INDUCTANCE is assumed to drop part of the applied voltage, leaving less voltage across
the primary.
 4. Transformer

Self-induced coefficient of
primary & secondary windings

S 2 S
L P   .N L2
PS   . N S
l l
An electromotive force (EMF) is induced across each
winding, an effect known as mutual inductance (namely,
M). In accordance with Faraday’s law of induction, the
EMFs are proportional to the rate of change of flux:
dΦ P dΦ S
EP  N P and ES  N S
dt dt

• EP and ES are the induced EMFs across primary and secondary windings,
• NP and NS are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary windings,
dΦ P dΦS
• and are the time derivatives of the flux linking the primary and secondary windings .
dt dt
 4. Transformer

Mutual inductance M
ES  S .N S S
M  H  ES  ;  S  K . P  K . .iP .N P .
i P / t t l
S
M  K .N P N S . .  K . LP LS
l
Coupling flux between primary & secondary is expressed by coefficient of coupling K
M
K 
LP LS

Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the voltages
VP and VS, measured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The
primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the “back
EMF”.
In the ideal transformer, all flux produced by the primary winding also links the secondary, P = S
The ratio of primary to secondary voltage is therefore the same as the ratio of the number of turns
VP N P

VS N S
 4. Transformer

The ratio NS/NP called “transformer factor”

NP = NS  VP = VS : transformer 1:1
NS > NP  VS > VP : step up transformer
NS < NP  VS < VP : step down transformer

Under load
VP I S N P
 
VS I P N S

There are two points to remember.

1. Transformers only work with alternating current. Using direct current will create a magnetic field
in the core but it will not be a changing magnetic field and so no voltage will be induced in the
secondary coil.
2. Using a step up transformer to increase the voltage does not give you something for nothing.
As the voltage goes up, the current goes down by the same proportion. The power equation shows
that the overall power remains the same, P = V×I ↔ Power = Voltage × Current.
4. Transformer
 4. Transformer

Example: A transformer has a 6:1 voltage ratio.

Find the current in the secondary if the current in the primary is 200 milliamperes.
 4. Transformer

Example: A transformer with a turns ratio of 1:12 has 3 amperes of current in the secondary. What is
the value of current in the primary?
 4. Transformer

POWER RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY WINDINGS

The turns ratio of a transformer affects current as well as voltage. If voltage is doubled in the
secondary, current is halved in the secondary and vice versa. In this manner, all the power delivered to
the primary by the source is also delivered to the load by the secondary (minus whatever power is
consumed by the transformer in the form of losses).
The turns ratio is 20:1. If the input to the primary is 0.1 ampere at 300 volts, the power in the primary
is P = E × I = 30 watts. If the transformer has no losses, 30 watts is delivered to the secondary. The
secondary steps down the voltage to 15 volts and steps up the current to 2 amperes. Thus, the power
delivered to the load by the secondary is P = E ×I = 15 volts × 2 amps = 30 watts.
The reason for this is that when the number of turns in the secondary is decreased, the opposition to
the flow of the current is also decreased. Hence, more current will flow in the secondary.
The important thing to remember is that with the exception of the power consumed within the
transformer, all power delivered to the primary by the source will be delivered to the load. The form of
the power may change, but the power in the secondary almost equals the power in the primary.

As a formula: PS = PP - PL
Where: PS = power delivered to the load by the secondary
PP = power delivered to the primary by the source
PL = power losses in the transformer
 4. Transformer
TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
To compute the efficiency of a transformer, the input power to and the output power from the
transformer must be known. The input power is equal to the product of the voltage applied to the
primary and the current in the primary. The output power is equal to the product of the voltage across
the secondary and the current in the secondary. The difference between the input power and the output
power represents a power loss. You can calculate the percentage of efficiency of a transformer by using
the standard efficiency formula shown below:
Pout Pout
Efficiency (in %)   .100  .100
Pin Pout  Plosses

Where: Pout = total output power delivered to the load

Pin = total input power
Example. If the input power to a transformer is 650 watts and the output power is 610 watts, what is the
efficiency?

Hence, the efficiency is approximately 93.8

percent, with approximately 40 watts being
wasted due to heat losses.
 4. Transformer

TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS

The transformer has many useful applications in an electrical circuit. A brief discussion of some of these
applications will help you recognize the importance of the transformer in electricity and electronics.

POWER TRANSFORMERS
Power transformers are used to supply voltages to the various circuits in electrical equipment. These
transformers have two or more windings wound on a laminated iron core. The number of windings and
the turns per winding depend upon the voltages that the transformer is to supply. Their coefficient of
coupling is 0.95 or more.

Siemens Oil filled final step-down

Power transformers 5MVA to
575MVA/525kV
Kuhlman Power Transformers-2500 to
transformers, with conservator or
10,000 kVA, both single and three-phase,
hermetically encapsulated 50 kVA to 3
are self-cooled with additional single stage
MVA with operation voltages ~ 36 kV
forced-air cooling available
 4. Transformer
The typical power transformer has several secondary windings, each providing a different voltage. The
schematic symbol for a typical power-supply transformer is shown in figure. For any given voltage
across the primary, the voltage across each of the secondary windings is determined by the number of
turns in each secondary. A winding may be center-tapped like the secondary 350 volt winding shown in
the figure. To center tap a winding means to connect a wire to the center of the coil, so that between this
center tap and either terminal of the winding there appears one-half of the voltage developed across the
entire winding. Most power transformers have colored leads so that it is easy to distinguish between the
various windings to which they are connected. Usually, red is used to indicate the high-voltage leads, but
it is possible for a manufacturer to use some other colors.

Fig. - Schematic diagram of a typical power

transformer.
 4. Transformer

AUDIO-FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS
Audio-frequency (AF) transformers are used in (AF) circuits as coupling devices. Audio-frequency
transformers are designed to operate at frequencies in the audio frequency spectrum (generally
considered to be 15 Hz to 20kHz).
They consist of a primary and a secondary winding wound on a laminated iron or steel core. Because
these transformers are subjected to higher frequencies than are power transformers, special grades of
steel such as silicon steel or special alloys of iron that have a very low hysteresis loss must be used for
core material. These transformers usually have a greater number of turns in the secondary than in the
primary; common step-up ratios being 1 to 2 or 1 to 4. With audio transformers the impedance of the
primary and secondary windings is as important as the ratio of turns, since the transformer selected
should have its impedance match the circuits to which it is connected.

Fig. audio transformer is a grain oriented silicone steel,

multi-sectioned design, with excellent frequency and
square wave response. Turns ratio is 1:90, power
handling conservatively set at 150 watts continuous
and 500 watts impulse. (<200 ms). Weight 4.5K
 SAFETY!

AC 60 Hz (mA) DC (mA) Effects

EFFECTS OF CURRENT ON THE BODY
Before learning safety precautions, you should look at 0-1 0-4 Perception
some of the possible effects of electrical current on the 1-4 4-15 Surprise
human body. The following table lists some of the 4-21 15-80 Reflex action
probable effects of electrical current on the human
Muscular
body. 21-40 80-160
inhibition
40-100 160-300 Respiratory failure
Over 100 Over 300 Usually fatal
Note in the above chart that a current as low as 4 mA can be expected to cause a reflex action in the victim, usually
causing the victim to jump away from the wire or other component supplying the current. While the current should
produce nothing more than a tingle of the skin, the quick action of trying to get away from the source of this irritation
could produce other effects (such as broken limbs or even death if a severe enough blow was received at a vital spot by
the shock victim).
It is important for you to recognize that the resistance of the human body cannot be relied upon to prevent a fatal shock
from a voltage as low as 115 volts or even less. Fatalities caused by human contact with 30 volts have been recorded.
Tests have shown that body resistance under unfavorable conditions may be as low as 300 ohms, and possibly as low as
100 ohms (from temple to temple) if the skin is broken. Generally direct current is not considered as dangerous as an
equal value of alternating current. This is evidenced by the fact that reasonably safe "let-go currents" for 60 hertz,
alternating current, are 9.0 milliamperes for men and 6.0 milliamperes for women, while the corresponding values for
direct current are 62.0 milliamperes for men and 41.0 milliamperes for women. Remember, the above table is a fist of
probable effects. The actual severity of effects will depend on such things as the physical condition of the work area,
the physiological condition and resistance of the body, and the area of the body through which the current flows. Thus,
based on the above information, you MUST consider every voltage as being dangerous.