Chapter Six

Magnetic Field
6-1 Electric Current and Electromotive Force
6-1-1 Electric Current and Electric Current Density
 The electric current is the rate at which the charges flow through this
surface ：

 If a current does not vary with time, it is called a steady current.

 The SI unit of current is ampere (), .

 The electric current density as a vector quantity is:

𝒆𝑛
(1) The direction of is the direction of the electric field at 𝜃
that point. d𝑆 𝒋
(2) The magnitude of equals the electric current through a Fig. 6-1 Current density
unit area that is perpendicular to the direction of the electric
field at that point.
 d 𝐼= 𝒋 ∙ d 𝑺

𝐼=∫ 𝒋∙d 𝑺
As shown in Fig. 6-1, the electrons passing through over is the number of
electrons in the cylinder . Assume the numbers of electrons per unit volume is , we
have

we have
6-1-2 Electromotive Force
 The electromotive force (emf) of an emf device is defined by +𝑞+𝑞
+𝑞 +𝑞
+¿+¿−
+¿
+¿ −
−
 According the definitions of emf and work, we have +¿ −
Fig. 6-2 Electromotive force

refers to the chemical force acting on unit positive charge which is also
known as the non-electrostatic field.

E =∮ 𝑬 k ∙d𝒍
6-2 Magnetic Field
𝑧
 The magnetic field can be defined as follows:
𝑭
(1) The direction of the magnetic field is along the
𝑞 𝑩
direction of the zero-force axis, and is the direction
that the north-seeking pole (N pole) of a compass
+¿𝜃 𝑦
needle points at that position. 𝑥 𝒗
Fig. 6-3 Definition of magnetic field
(2) When is perpendicular to the zero-force axis,
Table 5-1
the magnitude of the magnetic force is measured Some Approximate Magnetic Fields
as Strong lab magnet
Superconducting
T
T
magnetic
Medical MRI unit T
Near equator of the T
Earth
 The unit of magnetic field is tesla (). , or . Surface of the Sun T
Bar magnet T
Inside human brain T
6-3 The Biot-Savart Law
6-3-1 The Biot-Savart Law d𝑩
𝐼 d𝒍 𝐼
 We can summarize the magnetic field due to a current-
length element as 𝒓 𝐼 d𝒍
𝒆 𝑟𝜃
where is a constant called the permeability of free 𝒓 ×
space: , and the unit vector points from to . 𝑃
d𝑩
𝐼
Fig. 6-4 Biot-Savart law

 To find the total magnetic field produced at some point by a current length of
finite size, we sum up contributions from all the current-length elements making
up the current length.
6-3-2 Applications of Biot-Savart Law
Example 6-1 Consider a thin, straight wire carrying a constant currentand placed
along the axis as shown in Fig. 6-5. Determine the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic field at point due to this current.
Solution Suppose point and are in the plane of this page. 𝑦
𝑁𝜃 2
Consider a current-length element at any point of . 𝐼 d𝒍 𝜃
The magnitude of the magnetic field at point due to is 𝐼𝑦 𝑟 ×d 𝑩
𝑂 𝑎
𝜃1 𝑃
𝑀
To facilitate integrating, is used as the variable to perform the Fig. 6-5 Example 6-1
integration.
 Pay attention to the trigonometric relationship:

We have
𝜇0 𝐼
d 𝐵= sin 𝜃 d 𝜃
4𝜋𝑎
The direction of is inward as represented by a cross sign . No matter where is, the
direction of is the same.
𝜃
𝜇0 𝐼
2
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=∫ sin 𝜃 d 𝜃=¿ (cos 𝜃 1 − cos 𝜃 2)¿
𝜃
4𝜋𝑎
1
4𝜋𝑎
If the straight wire is of infinite length, then , , we have
Example 6-2 Consider a circular wire loop of radius placed in the plane and
carrying a steady current , as in Fig. 6-6. Calculate the magnetic field at an
axial point a distance from the center of the loop.
Solution Take a current-length element on the current-
carrying loop. 𝐼 d𝒍𝑦
The direction of at point due to this is shown in Fig. 6- 𝑅 𝑟 d 𝐵𝑦
6 and the magnitude of is
𝑂 𝜃 d𝑩
𝑥
𝑧 𝑃d 𝐵𝑥 𝑥
are summed over all elements around the loop, the Fig. 6-6 Example 6-2
resultant component is zero.
So, the resultant field at must be along the axis and we can find it by integrating the
component , that is,
 From the trigonometric relationship, we have

𝜇 0 𝐼𝑅d 𝑙 𝜇0 𝐼𝑅 𝜇 𝐼𝑅
2
𝐵=𝐵𝑥 =∮ sin 𝜃 d 𝐵=∮ 3/2∮
0
3/2
= d 𝑙=
4 𝜋 ( 𝑥 +𝑅 )
2 2 4 𝜋 ( 𝑥 +𝑅 )
2 2 2 ( 𝑥2 +𝑅 2 )3 /2
To find the magnetic field at the center of the loop, we set and we have

6-3-3 A Current-Carrying Coil as a Magnetic Dipole

We define the magnetic dipole moment as

𝒎= 𝑁𝐼𝑆 𝒆 n
Fig. 6-7 Magnetic
dipole
6-4 Gauss’ Law in Magnetism
6-4-1 Magnetic Field Lines
(1) The direction of the tangent to a magnetic field line at point gives the direction
of the magnetic field at that point.
(2) The spacing of the lines represents the magnitude of , that is, the magnetic
field is stronger where the lines are closer together, and vice versa.
d𝑁
 The magnitude of the magnetic field is defined to be 𝐵=
B
d 𝑆⊥
I

S N

I B

Fig. 6-8 Distributions of the magnetic field lines for current-carrying

(a) a solenoid, (b) a wire coil and (c) a long straight line
6-4-2 Magnetic Flux
 The total magnetic flux through a surface is given by
❑
𝛷=∫ 𝑩 ∙ d 𝑺
𝑆
 The SI unit for magnetic flux is , which is defined as a weber (); .

d𝑥
Example 6-3 A rectangular loop of width and length is ××𝑥× × ×
located near a long straight wire carrying a steady ×× × × ×
𝐼 ×× × × ×
current as shown in Fig. 6-9. The distance between the ×× × × ×
×× × × ×
b×
wire and the closest side of the loop is The wire is ×× × ×
×× × × ×
parallel to the long side of the loop and they are in the ×× × × ×
same plane. Find the magnetic flux through the loop due ××× × ×𝑥
×
𝑐
× ×𝑎× ×
to the current in the wire.
Fig. 6-9 Example 6-3
Solution The magnitude of the magnetic field created by the wire at a
distance from the wire is
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑥

Using right-hand rule, we know the direction is into the page on the right
side of the wire.
Take a differential strip for consideration, the differential flux through it is

The total magnetic flux through the rectangle is

What if the wire is placed in the middle of the rectangle and still parallel
to its long side?
6-4-3 Gauss’ Law in Magnetism
 As we mentioned that magnetic monopole does not exist, and we see in
the distributions of all the magnetic field lines that all of the lines form
closed loops.
 In other words, magnetic field lines do no begin or end at any point.
 For all closed surface, if one magnetic field line penetrates into the
surface, it must cross out of the closed surface and back to the tail of the
line forming a closed loop.

Gauss’ law in magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any closed
surface is always zero:
6-5 Ampère’s Law
6-5-1 Ampère’s Law
 A special case: What the line integral of a magnetic field
over a close loop is?
𝐼𝑩
If the counterclockwise direction along the circle is d𝒍
taken as the direction of the line integral, we have: 𝑂𝑅
❑ ❑ ❑
𝜇0 𝐼 𝜇0 𝐼
∮ 𝑩 ∙ d 𝒍=∮ 𝐵 d 𝑙=∮ 2 𝜋 𝑅 d 𝑙= 2 𝜋 𝑅 ∮ d 𝑙=𝜇0 𝐼 Fig. 6-10 The integration of
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 magnetic field through a
If the direction of line integral keeps the same while the circle with its center on a
direction of current is reversed, we have: wire of infinite length

∮ 𝑩 ∙ d 𝒍=−𝜇0 𝐼 =𝜇0 (− 𝐼 )
𝑙
It can be proved in general that the line integral of around any closed path
equals , where is the total steady current passing through any surface
bounded by the closed path, which is called Ampère’s law

(1) The closed path is called the Amperian loop.

(2) The current is taken as positive if its direction and that of the Amperian loop
follow the right-hand rule, otherwise, the current is labeled as negative.
(3) The direction of the line integral is given arbitrarily so that the sign of the
current depends on the direction of the line integral.
(4) does not necessarily mean that the magnetic field is zero everywhere
around the loop.
 6-5-2 Applications of Ampère’s Law
Example 6-4 Magnetic field of a solenoid
A tightly-packed solenoid whose length is much greater than the diameter and it can
be approximately considered as an ideal solenoid as shown in Fig. 6-11. Calculate
the magnetic field inside the solenoid. Suppose the current is and the number of
turns per unit length is .
Solution Let us draw a rectangular Amperian loop as
𝑎 𝑏 𝑩
in Fig. 6-11.
The clockwise direction is taken as the integral direction. 𝑑 𝑐
Fig. 6-11 Example 6-4
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑

∮ 𝑩 ∙ d 𝒍=∫ 𝑩∙ d 𝒍 +∫ 𝑩 ∙ d 𝒍 +¿ ∫ 𝑩∙ d 𝒍+ ∫ 𝑩∙ d 𝒍=𝐵 𝑎𝑏 ¿
𝑙 𝑎𝑏 𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑑 𝑑𝑎

𝐵 𝑎𝑏=𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 𝑎𝑏
𝐵=𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
Example 6-5 Magnetic field of a toroid
A toroid can be described as a solenoid that has been bent until its two
ends meet, forming a hollow circle. If a current is sent through the toroid,
what magnetic field is set up inside the toroid? Suppose the total number
of turns is and the radius of the toroid is .
Solution A concentric circle of radius is chosen as an
Amperian loop and the clockwise direction is taken as
the integral direction. Ampère’s law gives
(a)

❑ 𝑑 𝑃
∮ 𝑩 ∙ d 𝒍=2 𝜋 𝑟𝐵=𝜇0 𝑁𝐼 𝑟
𝑙

𝜇 0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋 𝑟 (b)
Fig. 6-12 (a) A schematic diagram of a toroid.
(b) A horizontal cross section of the toroid.
 6-6 Charged Particles Moving in Cross Fields
A charge moving with a velocity through a region filled with both an electric field
and a magnetic field experiences both an electric force and a magnetic force . The
total force, usually called the Lorentz force, on the charge is given by

6-6-1 Charged Particles Moving in a Magnetic Field

 Using Newton’s second law, we have 𝑩
2 𝑞 𝒗0
𝑣 𝑚𝑣
𝑞𝑣𝐵=𝑚
𝑅 𝑅=
𝑞𝐵
cyclotron radius
𝒗0 𝑭𝑭 𝑞
𝑅𝑭
𝑇=
2𝜋 𝑅 2𝜋𝑚
𝑣0
=
𝑞𝐵
1
𝑓= =
𝑞𝐵
𝑇 2𝜋 𝑚
cyclotron frequency 𝑞 𝒗0
Fig. 6-13 A charged particle
moves in a uniform magnetic field
 𝑩
𝒗 𝑩 𝑝 𝑭𝑭
𝑩

𝑣⊥ 𝑣
∥
𝑟
Fig. 6-14 The helical path of a charged Fig. 6-15 Schematic diagram of a
particle moving in a magnetic field magnetic bottle

 Fig. 6-16 is the photography by C.D. Anderson

(1905-1991) of the first positron ever identified.
 He is best known for his discovery of the
positron in 1932, an achievement for which
he received the 1936 Nobel Prize in
Physics.
Fig. 6-16 The first positron
ever identified by Anderson
6-6-2 Charged Particles Moving in Cross Fields
 The Mass Spectrometer
A mass spectrometer was invented by an English
chemist and physicist F. W. Aston (1877-1945) in his
discovery of isotopes in a large number of non-
radioactive elements, which won him the 1922 Nobel
Detector array
𝑃
Prize in Chemistry. 𝑩 𝑩 ′

𝑞𝐸=𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝑚 𝑟 𝐵𝐵 ′
𝑬 𝑞𝒗
′ = Velocity selector
𝑚 𝑟𝐵 𝑞 𝐸 Fig. 6-17 The mass spectrometer
=
𝑞 𝑣
 The Cyclotron
A cyclotron was first invented by E.O. Lawrence
(1901-1958) in 1932 at UC Berkley, which won him
1939 Nobel prize in physics.
Dee Dee
Fig. 6-18 gives the overhead view of a schematic
diagram of a typical cyclotron, which is a device that Beam
𝑆
can accelerate charged particles to a very high speed
that has applications such as bombarding atomic nuclei Deflector plate
Oscillator
and causing nuclear reactions. Many hospitals use
cyclotron facilities to produce radioactive substances Fig. 6-18 Schematic drawing of
for diagnosis and treatment. the cyclotron
  The Hall Effect
The Hall effect is the production of an electric potential
difference across an electrical conductor, transverse to
an electric current in the conductor and to an applied
magnetic field perpendicular to the current. It was first
discovered in 1879 by Edwin Hall (1855~1938). 𝑩
𝑞 𝑣 d 𝐵=𝑞 𝐸 H 𝐸 H =𝑣 d 𝐵 𝑈 H𝐼𝑭 B𝒗
𝑭E d
𝑏
𝑈 H =𝐸 H 𝑏=𝑣 d 𝐵𝑏 𝑩 𝐼
𝐼 𝐼 𝑑
𝑣d= = Fig. 6-19 The Hall effect
𝑛𝑞𝑆 𝑛𝑞𝑏𝑑 is the Hall coefficient.

An interesting medical application related to the Hall effect is the electromagnetic

blood flowmeter, first developed in the 1950s and continually improved since
then.
6-7 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire
 The resultant magnetic force on the element is the sum of
individual forces exerted on the electrons. So we have
d𝑭
𝑧 𝑩
As , we obtain 𝜃
𝐼 d𝒍
Considering and the definition of cross product as shown 𝑭 𝑩
in the inset of Fig. 6-20, we may express the magnetic 𝒗 d𝜑
force exerted on a current-length element as 𝜃
𝑥 𝐼 𝑦
Fig. 6-20 Magnetic force acting
For an arbitrarily shaped wire, the net magnetic force is on a current-length element
❑ ❑
𝑭 =∫ d 𝑭 =∫ 𝐼 d 𝒍 × 𝑩
𝑙 𝑙
Example 6-6 A current-carrying wire bent into an arc of radius with a subtended
angle lies in a plane that is perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field as shown
in Fig. 6-21. The magnitude of current is . Find the magnitude and direction of
the magnetic force exerted on the arc.
Solution The magnetic force acting on a current-length
element is , whose magnitude is 𝑦
d 𝑭𝐼 d𝒍𝑏 𝑩
𝜃2 𝑂
From the symmetry consideration, the axis components are 𝜃 𝑥
I 𝜃 1
canceled.
𝑎
Fig. 6-21 Example 6-6

∵ and ∴
6-8 Torque on a Current Loop in a Uniform Field
 The net torque exerted on the loop is the sum of 𝑭3
the torque due to and the toque due to 𝑃 𝑩
𝑀
𝑀 =𝑀 1 + 𝑀 2 N I 𝑭 2S
𝜃𝒆𝑛
(a)
𝑀𝑃 𝑀𝑃 1 𝐼
𝑀 1=𝑀 2=𝐹 1 sin 𝜃=𝐼𝐵 𝑀𝑁 sin 𝜃= 𝐼𝐵 𝑙1 𝑙 2 sin 𝜃 𝑭 1 𝑂
2 2 2 𝑁
𝑭4
N 𝑭2
If the loop consists of turns, then 𝑃S
𝑀=𝑁𝐼𝐵𝑆 sin 𝜃 (b)
𝑀𝐼 𝜃
𝒆n
 In fact, torque is a vector quantity as
𝑭1
𝑴 =𝐼 𝑺× 𝑩 Fig. 6-22 A rectangular loop in a
𝑴 =𝒎× 𝑩 uniform magnetic field from (a)
side view, and (b) overhead view
(1) is parallel to . In this case, the torque is zero, and this is the equilibrium
state of the current-carrying loop in a magnetic field. The equilibrium state is
stable.

(2) is anti-parallel to . In this case, the torque is zero, and this is

also the equilibrium state of the current-carrying loop in a magnetic
field. But this equilibrium state is unstable.

(3) is perpendicular to . In this condition, the torque takes the

maximal value.
6-9 Magnetism in Matter
6-9-1 Magnetization and the Classification of Magnetic Substances
 Suppose a certain type of substance is placed in a magnetic field , the
substance is magnetized and exerts an additional magnetic field on , making
the resultant magnetic field to be

(1) If has the same direction of and , this type of materials is called the
paramagnetic materials such as aluminum, oxygen, and manganese;
(2) If has the opposite direction of and , such type of materials is called the
diamagnetic materials such as copper, bismuth, and hydrogen.
(3) If has the same direction of with a magnitude of ~ times higher than , that is, ,
and is not a constant. This type of materials is called the ferromagnetic materials
such as iron, cobalt, nickel and their alloys.
 Microscopic Origin of Diamagnetism If the molecule has a net
magnetic dipole moment of zero, the external magnetic field will induce
an additional magnetic moment whose direction is opposite to the
external fields, leading to the presence of diamagnetism.
 Microscopic Origin of Paramagnetism If the molecule has nonzero
magnetic dipole moments and placed under a magnetic field, all these
disordered moments are aligned roughly to the external field, leading to an
additional in the same direction of the external field.
 We introduce some parameters related to magnetism.
(1) Magnetic permeability
The ratio of the magnitude of to the magnitude of is defined as the relative
magnetic permeability

And is called the magnetic permeability, where is the permeability of free

space.
 (2) The Magnetic field
The magnetic field is defined as

In SI units, the unit for is ampere-meter, symbolized . We call the magnetic

field and we call the field H, or even, the magnetic field H.

6-9-2 Ferromagnetism
 All ferromagnetic materials are made up of microscopic
regions called domains;
 The boundaries between the various domains have
different orientations are called domain walls.
 A typical magnetic hysteresis loop is shown in Fig. 6-
23.
Fig. 6-23 Magnetic hysteresis loop
Thank you!