LGSE 3063 Session 2

LGSE 3063
ACADEMIC WRITING
© 2019, University of Cyberjaya. Please do not reproduce, redistribute or share without the prior express permission of the author.
Various Writing Styles
Academic Business Writing Creative Writing Technical Writing
Writing
Any writing is a type of writing is intended to is usually in regard to
done to fulfil a that seeks to elicit a express the original planning, developing,
requirement of a
college or business response. thoughts of the providing, maintaining
university. writer. and fixing technical
Academic equipment
writing is also
used for Memos, Letters, Poetry, Songs, User manuals, software
publications or Busines Plans, Movie and installation guides;
presented at Emails, Reports television scripts, Standard Operating
conferences Short Stories Procedures (SOP),
Service Contract
Examples of Academic Genres
• Academic essays
• Research Papers / Articles
• Reports
• Case Studies
• Review of Literature
• Research proposals
• Book reviews
• Brief research reports
• Reflective writing
• Research Dissertations & Theses
Academic Audience
The general characteristics of the academic audience:
• They value thorough and careful research
• They look for interested and genuine questioning about the subject matter
• They value precision in thought
• They insist that arguments be supported by evidence
• They expect clear and concise writing
• They expect a mature, academic voice
• They require accurate source documentation
Types of Academic Audience
Specialist Audience General Educated Audience
Simple examples may not be useful Include important background that helps
beginners understand the main discussion
Include critical commentary of
research findings, concepts Define of key terms
(insightful analysis)
Use terms, jargons to explain concept Relate it to something they do know, and
help them connect the dots
Provide lots of examples to make your writing more
Provide relevant, topic-specific
concrete and descriptive.
information
Explain complex issues in a clear and simple
Careful research language
Accurate grammar and careful proofreading

Identify the intended academic reader for both texts
Text A Text B
Fire risk is defined as the product of the An appropriate fire safety design should ensure
occupant safety at first as building fire occurs
probability of fire occurrence and the
(Johnson & Myers, 2019, Cheong, 2018 &
consequence or extent of damage to be Gerald, 2018). According to Stephan (2020), fire
expected on the occurrence of fire (Hurley, safety regulations in many countries require Fire
2016). Fire risk assessment in buildings Risk Assessment to be carried out for buildings
comprises three steps which are fire hazard such as workplaces and houses in multiple
identification, fire risk analysis, and fire risk occupation. Section 35 in Occupational Safety
and Health Act 1994 states that a fire safety
evaluation. Fire hazard identification is a
design satisfies the corresponding prescriptive
systematic process to understand how, when, codes, it can be concluded that fire safety can be
and why fire could happen. ensured in an acceptable risk range.
TEXT A : General Educated Audience
Include important background of

Fire emergencies are threat to the occupants of a residential key terms
college. It can kill or seriously injure employees or visitors
and can also damage or destroy buildings, equipment or Define of key terms
stock. Fire risk is defined as the product of the probability of
fire occurrence and the consequence or extent of damage to
be expected on the occurrence of fire (Hurley, 2016). It is
Explain complex issues in a clear and
something which is likely to cause a fire or make a fire worse. simple language
For example, plugging too many appliances into the same
socket can result in overheating and potentially a fire. Fire Provide examples to make your
writing more descriptive.
risk assessment in buildings comprises three steps which are
fire hazard identification, fire risk analysis, and fire risk
evaluation.
TEXT B : Specialist Audience
An appropriate fire safety design should ensure occupant

Careful research
safety at first as building fire occurs (Johnson & Myers, 2019,
Cheong, 2018 & Gerald, 2018). According to Stephan (2020),
fire safety regulations in many countries require Fire Risk
Assessment to be carried out for buildings such as workplaces Use terms, jargons to explain concept
and houses in multiple occupation. Section 35 of
Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 states that a fire
safety design satisfies the corresponding prescriptive codes, it No definitions of key terms
can be concluded that fire safety can be ensured in an
acceptable risk range.
LANGUAGE OF
ACADEMIC
WRITING
Can I write like I speak in
Academic setting?
“What makes academic writing formal?”
1. The key element leading to formality in academic writing is the

audience
2. Academic writing has to be clear, well-constructed, and
unambiguous as possible – achieved through formal writing
3. Formality in Academic writing is highly regarded for it helps in
evading misinterpretation and ambiguity in the resulting work.
Her accessories are on point.

“What makes academic writing formal?”
1. The key element leading to formality in academic writing is the
audience
2. Academic writing has to be clear, well-constructed, and
unambiguous as possible – achieved through formal writing
3. Formality in Academic writing is highly regarded for it helps in
evading misinterpretation and ambiguity in the resulting work.
Her accessories are on point..

Appropriate Stylish Attractive Outstanding
Change the language to become more specific and factual as
it became more formal.
INFORMAL FORMAL
1. In a workshop. It’s a lit!!

2. The workshop was so awesome
3. Most participants found the workshop really good
4. 97% of the participants said that the workshop

materials and activities were informative and
beneficial
Precise
Formal Impersonal
FEATURES OF
ACADEMIC WRITING
Cautious Objective
FEATURES OF
ACADEMIC WRITING:
FORMAL LANGUAGE
Use full words instead All contracted forms need to be in full forms
of contractions E.g: it’ll, it will / it’s, it is / there’s, there is
Colloquial / informal Beware of using slang, and general English term
words expressions E.g: gonna, stuff, a lot, things
Aspects
Phrasal Verbs A verb + preposition are often considered informal
E.g: look into, come across
Informal vocabulary E.g: hard, easy, big (adj.)
get, show, use (verb)
Avoid unspecified etc, and so on, thing
categories
Avoid rhetorical Industrial sites cause vast amounts of
questions the reader environmental pollution, so why do we still use
cannot answer them?
Colloquial Language
"It is kind of cold outside." "He has a lot of reasons”
"It is like he never existed." “This is a pretty good

investment”
• Colloquial language, is ‘normally restricted to informal (especially

spoken) English’ (Burchfield, 2004).
• Colloquial language is not necessarily “wrong,” but it is used when
a writer is trying to achieve informality.
• Colloquial language does not provide the exactness needed in an
academic setting (Fowler & Allen, 1992).
Retirement is something
most of us must face Retirement is
sooner or later. inevitable.
vs.
Expressions that are used in everyday More formally worded
spoken language
Often imprecise, so is open to
misinterpretation
At the end of the day, it Protecting
boils down to protecting biodiversity is
our biodiversity, because essential for a
our children’s future is in vs. sustainable future.
our hands.
spoken language
Can be inaccessible to non-native

English speakers.
Needless to say, in this Computer skills are
day and age it is essential currently essential.
to have some computer vs.
skills
spoken language
Often imprecise, so is open to
misinterpretation
Colloquial Formal Alternative
good enough adequate
get through it survive, penetrate
part and parcel intrinsic to
beyond a shadow of doubt definitely
in recent years recently
got out of hand was no longer under control
a stumbling block point of contention, obstacle
in today's society today, currently
pros and cons advantages and disadvantages
Colloquial Expressions vs. Formal Alternatives
Colloquial Formal Alternative
pretty good persuasive
insightful;
was well researched
As we all know It is widely accepted/understood/believed
Hot topic A controversial issue, a contentious problem
More and more An increasing number
for sure I am sure/certain
loads of research extensive research
All walks of life different levels of society
Colloquial Expressions vs. Formal Alternatives
Informal Vocabulary
• Many words and phrases that are used in daily English
conversation are inappropriate for Academic Writing.
• When writing a paper, you want to communicate to your reader
that you have thought carefully about your ideas.
• If you write in an informal style that reminds the reader of a
casual conversation, your reader may not take your ideas as
seriously.
• A formal tone helps establish the writer's respect for the audience
and suggests that the writer is serious about his or her topic.
Formal vs. Informal Verbs
Informal Formal Informal Formal
Seem Appear Tell Inform
Climb Ascend get Obtain
Help Assist Keep Preserve / retain
stop Cease Need Require
Begin Commence Wrong Incorrect
Use Utilise enough Sufficient
Shorten Decrease Understanding Comprehension
Show Demonstrate Lack Deficiency
Go Depart Give provide
Want Desire Happen Occur
Ask Enquire
end Finish
Formal vs. Informal Adjectives
Informal Formal
A lot of, lots of many, numerous, a large number of
big large, great, high, major

little, tiny Minor, small, insignificant
hard difficult, arduous, laborious
good suitable, appropriate, effective, efficient,

beneficial, advantageous
bad poor, inappropriate, unsuitable, ineffective,

inefficient, unsatisfactory, defective
Informal vs. Formal Sentence Starters
Informal Example Alternative
Also Also, the participants were in (Moreover/Furthermore), the
agreement on the third participants were in agreement
question on the third question
So So it can be concluded that the Therefore it can be concluded
model needs further that the model needs further
refinement refinement
And And the participants were all The participants were all over
over the age of 30 the age of 30
Besides Besides, we asked all the Additionally, we asked all the
participants to sign an participants to sign an
agreement agreement
Avoid Rhetorical Questions
• Rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected.
• Readers might not know the answer and the point being made could
be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement.
Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of The question surrounding the
environmental pollution, so why do we still continued use of industrial sites, given
use them? their vast pollution production, still
remains.
What is a team? A team can be one person A team can include one person but
but will usually end up including many more. usually involves many more.
The question is, however, does the "Design It is questionable whether the "Design
School Model" provide a practical solution to School Model" provides a practical
the problem of how to formulate strategy? solution to the problem of strategy
formulation.
FEATURES OF
ACADEMIC WRITING:
PRECISE LANGUAGE
Precision
• In academic writing, writers need to be precise when using
information, dates or figures.
• In some cases, words can have multiple meanings - harder for the
reader to extract your meaning.
The following sentence is very broad and

Most people didn’t like
general
changing trains on the way
to work, but they still How many people are ‘most’?
thought it was better than How strong is their dislike of changing trains?
taking a bus. In what way are trains better than buses?
Imprecise Precise
Most people did not While 89 percent of the survey

like changing trains on respondents indicated their dislike of
the way to work, but vs. changing trains on their commute to
they still thought it work, they preferred taking two
was better than taking trains to taking one bus, which they
a bus. perceived would be slower overall
and less comfortable, or both.
• The writer specifies exactly which group of people
they are referring to, what their preferences were,
and the degree of strength of those preferences.
• The additional detail in the sentence above clearly
makes the message more precise
Precision : Choose words that express concepts clearly
Fuzzy and Imprecise Particular and Clear
Problem e.g Malnutrition among children
Fast 200km/second
Small number of votes 76 votes
Soon In 2022
thing aspects, components, details, entities, facets, factors,
features, objects or phenomena
Many problems e.g Depression, anxiety and stress
In the past In 1990
A lot of respondents chose… 153 respondents chose…
etc, and so on (be specific)
Private cars are Private cars offer more privacy and comfort than public
more convenient than public transport, and in most cases save you time.
transport.
Precision : Choose verbs that express concepts clearly
• Certain verbs are considered too imprecise for academic writing, in
that they do not provide detailed, exact meaning we require.
• The word “get” has so many different meanings. In the following
sentences, a different formal equivalent of GET is needed each time:
The treatment of cancer is getting improving

better all the time.
The researchers got results from a obtained
large participant group
British citizens get a letter from the receive
Monarch when they reach 100
Choose verbs that express concepts clearly
• Certain verbs are considered too imprecise for academic writing, in
that they do not provide detailed, exact meaning we require.
• The word “get” has so many different meanings. In the following
sentences, a different formal equivalent of GET is needed each time:
The treatment of cancer is getting improving

better all the time.
The researchers got results from a obtained
large participant group
British citizens get a letter from the receive
Monarch when they reach 100
FEATURES OF
ACADEMIC WRITING:
IMPERSONAL
LANGUAGE
Impersonal (Tone)
• Tone refers to the writer's voice in a written work.
• Academic writing is formal in tone and meant to be objective,
using cited sources to support an argument or position.
• This assumes the focus is not the author, but rather the writing
(“this essay”, “this report”, “this literature review”).
• The first person point of view is considered informal, and is not
encouraged in academic writing.
Examples of personal opinion:
“I believe…” “I think…” “In my opinion…” “I would say that…”
Impersonal (Tone)
• The language of academic writing should be impersonal, and
should not include personal pronouns, emotional language
Academic generally does not

employ first person pronouns like
"I" or "we"
With personal pronoun ‘I’ I believe modern technology should not replace
traditional face-to-face classroom teaching
Without personal pronoun ‘I’ Modern technology should not replace traditional
face-to-face classroom teaching
More objective, more academic tone
Personal Pronouns : Point of view
First Person Voice: Second Person Voice: Third Person Voice:
• Words like I, me, my, • Words like you and your • Words like he, she,
ours, us, and we • Used to directly address they, them, person,
• Used to tell personal the reader, especially one, and descriptive
stories when giving directions words like author,
• Useful for the reader to • Useful for the language of reader, player
see into the writer’s everyday life and creating • Useful for the writer
thoughts and feel the a bond between the writer to maintain an all-
writer’s emotions and the reader knowing, unbiased
• Informal • Informal perspective
• Formal
Expressing your opinion without using 1st or
2nd person voice
1. Change to third person
Instead of… Write…
I argue The report argues
We researched the issue The group researched the issue
I used structured interviews The chosen methodology was
I found that It was found that
I feel that you should not One should not / A person should
not
Many of you are confused Many students are confused
*They argued that The authors argued that
2. Use a passive structure
“We should invest more “More money should be
money in education” invested in education”
“Many people claim that ”It is widely claimed that

children are spending less time children are spending less time
reading these days, but recent reading these days, but recent
research suggests…” research suggests…”
3. Relate your writing to the evidence, not to your thinking.
Avoid these pronouns / phrases in Use these words / phrases in
academic writing academic writing instead
I think… The literature suggests (that)
I feel… The results indicate (that)
I believe… Considering the results,
I am convinced that… According to the figures,
I am sure that… It is evident (that)…
It is my belief that… The research indicates/suggests
(that)…
4. Use “It is” + ADJECTIVE/NOUN and “There is/are” + NOUN
“I cannot understand why “It is difficult to
this decision was taken.” understand why this decision
was taken.”
“Many people were “There was a lot of
confused about the change in confusion about the change in
legislation about tobacco legislation about tobacco
advertising.” advertising.”
Relate your writing to the
evidence, not to your thinking
• Sample A
My research suggests strong perceptions of the programme as delivering language improvement,
friendship and increased world knowledge and I believe that it should be promoted more
rigorously within the university. I am convinced that universities should consider participation in
such schemes as a prerequisite for student exchange programmes, rather than relying wholly on
criteria such as IELTS scores or other scholastic achievements.
• Sample B
The research suggests strong perceptions of the programme as delivering language improvement,
friendship and increased world knowledge and the results indicate that it should be promoted
more rigorously within the university. It is evident that universities should consider participation
in such schemes as a prerequisite for student exchange programmes, rather than relying wholly on
criteria such as IELTS scores or other scholastic achievements.
FEATURES OF
ACADEMIC WRITING:
OBJECTIVE
LANGUAGE
Objectivity
• Objectivity is unbiased, based on facts and evidence and is not
influenced by personal feelings.
• When personal beliefs or emotions influence your writing it
is subjective and thus less convincing.
This paper strongly argues that

I am convinced that
I was appalled that Too absolute, or lacking of
Without a doubt
caution, too judgmental and
It is clear that
It is undeniable that emotional
There is no denying that
Components of an Academic Argument
• An academic argument is made up of three components.
Ethos
The point that the The reasons and
Authors answer the
author is trying to 'so what' question
evidence the author Pathos
make is using to justify a
claim Logos
What does the text offer to persuade us to believe the writer’s
claim?
What does the text offer to persuade us to believe the writer’s claim?
Argument was
developed using
facts, research
findings, statistics
Argument was
developed using a
strong focus on
emotion
Objectivity: Emotive Language
• Emotive language appeals to the emotions or values of your
reader.
• Emotive language tends to use superlatives and/or exaggeration in
an attempt to incite an emotional reaction.
Example
Japanese orthography is too difficult to be well-understood…
Japanese orthography is not generally well-understood…
These really lucky people may be advantaged by healthcare services

that…
These people may be advantaged by healthcare services that…
Example Can you find any words/phrases
that connote emotive language?
It was extremely disappointing that the

bureaucracy chose to target students
who did not understand the rules of
plagiarism in the first year of their
university studies. Some caring lecturers
approached the issue by delivering a
series of brilliant workshops to assist the
students to overcome their referencing
problems. It was a fantastic strategy as
most of their students did not have to
face being accused of plagiarism.
Example Be careful that you use language in
a neutral way so that you keep your
likes and dislikes (emotions) to
It was extremely disappointing that the yourself
bureaucracy chose to target students
who did not understand the rules of “extremely disappointing”
plagiarism in the first year of their
university studies. Some caring lecturers “caring lecturer”
approached the issue by delivering a
series of brilliant workshops to assist “brilliant”
the students to overcome their
“fantastic strategy”
referencing problems. It was a fantastic
strategy as most of their students did not
“being accused”
have to face being accused of plagiarism.
Example
A MORE APPROPRIATE STYLE:
It was extremely disappointing that First year university students were
the bureaucracy chose to target challenged when university
students who did not understand administrators expected them to
the rules of plagiarism in the first abide by the plagiarism rules set by
year of their university studies. the university. Some concerned
Some caring lecturers approached
the issue by delivering a series of
vs lecturers approached the issue by
delivering a series of well-presented
brilliant workshops to assist the workshops to assist the students to
students to overcome their overcome their referencing
referencing problems. It was a problems. It was an effective
fantastic strategy as most of their strategy as most of their students
students did not have to face being were able to avoid having any
accused of plagiarism. significant plagiarism problems
Objectivity : Judgemental Language
• Academic writing is usually unadorned and direct.
• Some adverbs of frequency (such as always and never),
superlatives (terms that indicate something is of the
highest degree, such as the best), and intensifiers
(words that create emphasis, such as very) are often too
dramatic.
• They may also not be accurate – you’re making a
significant claim when you say something
is perfect or never happens
Avoid Exaggeration
Informal Example Alternative
Always, never Researchers always argue Researchers (frequently/
that commonly/ typically) argue
that
Perfect, best, The perfect solution to (An ideal solution/one of
worst, most (or the problem the best solutions) to the
any other problem
superlative)
Very, extremely, This theory This theory
really, too, so (or is extremely important is (important/critical/
any other This theory is very
crucial)
intensifier) important
FEATURES OF
ACADEMIC WRITING:
CAUTIOUS LANGUAGE
“All sheep are
white…….
Eliminating hasty
generalization
Cautious (Hedging)
• In any kind of academic writing it is necessary to make decisions
about your stance to a particular subject, or the strengths of claims
you are making.
• It is unlikely that the evidence you present will be conclusive
enough for you to state that something will definitely happen.
• Academic writing often calls for a cautious style - to indicate that
an issue has more than one answer or interpretation.
• This is especially important when commenting on data, discussing
implications or drawing conclusions from findings.
Cautious (Hedging)
• In our writing, we often indicate how confident we are about the
claims we make
Confident
Diet is undoubtedly an
important factor in the health of
the respondents.
Cautious (Hedging)
claims we make
Confident
Diet is undoubtedly an
important factor in the health of
the respondents.
“absolute statement”
Cautious (Hedging)
claims we make
Confident Cautious
Diet is undoubtedly an The evidence suggests that diet

important factor in the health of was an important factor in the
the respondents. health of the respondents.
“absolute statement”
Cautious (Hedging)
claims we make
Confident Cautious
Diet is undoubtedly an The evidence suggests that diet

important factor in the health of was an important factor in the
the respondents. health of the respondents.
“absolute statement” “avoid generalizations”

Cautious (Hedging)
claims we make
Confident Cautious
Examples: certainly, indeed, Examples: Perhaps, maybe,

always, undoubtedly, in fact, admittedly, might, possibly, likely,
clearly, actually, obviously, know, probably, seems, appears, may,
prove, conclusively, definitely, suggests, sometimes, often,
evidently usually, etc
Example
Undoubtedly, in industrialised countries, the

number of depression cases is higher.
Is that true for all industrialised countries?

I don't think the research has 100% proven this link yet.
This is only one study – can we say that it clearly proves the link?
Is it true for all industrialised countries?
Reasons for Hedging
• Authors use hedging in order to tone down their
utterances and minimize the risk of opposition –to avoid
scientific imprecision and personal accountability for what
is presented.
• Authors need to inform readers that what they claim is
not clear-cut and the final word on the topic.
• As ways of being more precise in reporting results -
present the true state of the writers' understanding.
• To be used as a positive or negative politeness strategy
Establish academic writing
Positive politeness
style in English
strategies
The results seem to suggest that in industrialised

countries, the number of depression cases tends
to be higher.
Reduce the risk of
opposition Being more precise in
reporting results
Be Cautious
• Using cautious language allows ideas, arguments, evaluations and
conclusions expressed in your academic writing to remain open to
interpretation by the reader
• Hedging is the use of linguistic devices to express hesitation or
uncertainty as well as to demonstrate politeness and indirectness.
1.Introductory verbs
2. Modals
Hedging 3. Adverbs of frequency
4. ‘That’/’It’ clauses
Language techniques to 'soften'
your claims 5. Modal adverbs
6. Quantifiers
Hedging Devices
Tentative Verbs Modal Verbs
seem, appear, tend, believe, indicate, should, would, may, might, could
suggest
Adv of Frequency
often, commonly, sometimes, usually,
generally, rarely, hardly ever
Quantifiers Modal Adverbs

some, many, much, one of, the certainly, definitely, clearly,
majority (of), several, a few, a probably, possibly, perhaps,
minority of, a proportion of, in apparently, evidently, relatively,
certain situations, to some arguably
extent
Hedging Devices
Modifiers
quite, rather, somewhat, fairly,
rather, somehow, about Modal language
has the potential to
has the possibility of
That Clauses is able to
It is commonly believed that… It is
generally accepted that…
It has been suggested that…
The evidence suggests that…
Studies have indicated that…
Example Students’ academic achievement at university
may be improved by attending study skills
Attending study skills classes.
classes improves
students’ academic It is suggested that attending study skills
achievement at university classes improves students’ academic
achievement at university.
Cautious expressions have been Attending study skills classes
used to modify the statement
tends to improve students’ academic
achievement at university.
It is likely that students’ academic

achievement at university could be
improved by attending study skills classes.
Should you always hedge?
Hedging vs Boosters
• Hedges and boosters are also used as a significant way to express
the degree of confidence of an author in academic writing.
• The selective use of boosters will convince your reader that you
know your stuff and are an expert in your field
• Boosters strengthen a statement so that the author can present a
strong point of view and persuade the reader of the author’s
point.
• Boosters are most often used in the introductory and concluding
sections of papers, theses and books - the introduction and
conclusion are where the writer wants to influence the reader.
Certainty
Barometer
• Certainty can be
expressed with
varying degrees,
ranging from less to
more certain
• You can still make
bold claims, if they
are justified
*Try to avoid using the terms that
imply 100% or 0% certainty
Hedging vs Boosters : Across Disciplines
• Certainty is more present in scientific texts than social sciences
Doubt(s) can lead to no one will be able to
Medicine A might be helpful for skin cancer use the drug in the future because they
can’t risk on their health
• When dealing with social sciences, one cannot be sure about the results
of researches on behaviors as social sciences try to explain and account
the different behavioural patterns and such patterns are complex and
vary from one to another.
• Hedging is commonly practised in scientific writing, it is important for
writers to be aware of their hedges and to avoid using them in excess.
Thank you
Address Telephone Website

University of Cyberjaya 03 - 8313 7000 www.cyberjaya.edu.my
Persiaran Bestari,
Cyber 11, 63000 Cyberjaya, Facsimile Email
Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. 03 – 8313 7001 inquiry@cyberjaya.edu.my

LGSE 3063 Session 2

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LGSE 3063 Session 2

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LGSE 3063

Accurate grammar and careful proofreading

Include important background of

An appropriate fire safety design should ensure occupant

1. The key element leading to formality in academic writing is the

Her accessories are on point.

Her accessories are on point..

1. In a workshop. It’s a lit!!

3. Most participants found the workshop really good

4. 97% of the participants said that the workshop

"It is like he never existed." “This is a pretty good

• Colloquial language, is ‘normally restricted to informal (especially

Can be inaccessible to non-native

Colloquial Expressions vs. Formal Alternatives

Colloquial Expressions vs. Formal Alternatives

big large, great, high, major

good suitable, appropriate, effective, efficient,

bad poor, inappropriate, unsuitable, ineffective,

The following sentence is very broad and

Most people did not While 89 percent of the survey

The treatment of cancer is getting improving

The treatment of cancer is getting improving

Academic generally does not

More objective, more academic tone

“Many people claim that ”It is widely claimed that

This paper strongly argues that

These really lucky people may be advantaged by healthcare services

It was extremely disappointing that the

Diet is undoubtedly an The evidence suggests that diet

Diet is undoubtedly an The evidence suggests that diet

“absolute statement” “avoid generalizations”

Examples: certainly, indeed, Examples: Perhaps, maybe,

Undoubtedly, in industrialised countries, the

Is that true for all industrialised countries?

The results seem to suggest that in industrialised

Quantifiers Modal Adverbs

It is likely that students’ academic

Address Telephone Website

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