PL 111: CRITICAL

THINKING AND
ARGUMENTATION
Instructors
PL111 A: DR MICHAEL LYAKURWA
PL111 B: MR MOSES BABATUNDE
ODULAJA
 TOPIC 1:
INTRODUCING THE
SUBJECT MATTER

Issues and arguments

 1.1 Critical Thinking in
General
• Critical thinking is the careful, deliberate determination of
whether we should accept, reject or suspend judgement
about a claim- and of the degree of confidence with which
to accept or reject it.
• In other words, critical thinking is the art of ensuring that
you use the best thinking you are capable of in any set of
circumstances.
• The ability to think critically is vitally important, in fact our
lives depend on it. The way we conduct our lives depends
on what we believe to be true-on what claims we accept.
 1.1.1 Issues and Claims

• An Issue
• An issue is any matter of controversy or uncertainty; it may
be in dispute, in doubt, or simply up for review.
• An issue causes a rift and hence a dichotomy claims can
therefore be in support or against the issue at hand because
claims are affirmations or denials about a standpoint of an
issue
• The more carefully we evaluate a claim and the more fully
we separate issue that are relevant to it from those that are
not, the more critical is our thinking.
 Issues and Claims
• For example people may have opposing views on abortion. One part being
for and the other against abortion
• In this case, what is at issue is “whether abortion is morally” acceptable or
not and thus the debate ensues
• An issue can also be a matter of internal dispute for a single individual.
• Let's say, “whether I should accept the marriage proposal of this guy,”
“whether I should buy a new car” etc. My uncertainty is what makes it an
issue for me.
• A Claim is a statement that can either be true or false. These statements are
affirmations or denials about the matter in question
• *They are always declarative sentences that qualify to be called
“statements””*
 1.1.2 Argumentation

• Resolving Issues
• How then do we resolve issues? Issues are settled through
arguments.
• An Argument
• Generally an argument can be thought of as an attempt to
support a claim by giving reasons for believing it.
• The claim one attempts to support is known as the
conclusion of the argument; the claims that serve as reasons
for believing the conclusion are known as premises.
 Argumentation

• So, then an argument is an attempt to support a

claim (the conclusion) by providing reasons or a
reason for believing it (the premises). In other
words, in an argument, premises are designed to
provide support for a conclusion.
 1.2. Facts and Opinions
• A Fact
• The word fact is often used to indicate or emphasize that a claim is
true.
• For example, it is a fact that mount Kilimanjaro is in Tanzania which
means the same as it is true that mount Kilimanjaro is in Tanzania.
• An Opinion
• The word opinion on the other hand is used to indicate that a claim
is believed, or judged to be true by someone, often after a certain
amount of thought.
• E.g., It is Juma’s opinion that mount Kilimanjaro is in Tanzania says
that Juma believes mount Kilimanjaro is in Tanzania. Similarly, it is
Jane’s opinion that Mount Kilimanjaro is in Kenya says that Jane
believes that Mount Kilimanjaro is in Kenya.
 Facts and Opinions

• Talking about the two opinions above, it may be seen that the
first opinion is true, that is the claim is not just Juma’s
opinion, it is also a fact.
• The second opinion is false, i.e., it is not a fact that Mount
Kilimanjaro is in Kenya.
• This means that some opinions are factual (true) and some
are not.
• *Therefore one of the goals of critical thinking is to help
us form opinions that are factual and avoid false
opinions.*
 1.2.1 Factual matter (matters
of fact)
• Factual Issues vs non-Factual Issues
• Factual Issues
• This is an issue about a factual matter or a matter of
fact; this happens when there are established
methods for settling it, i.e., when there are generally
accepted criteria or standards on which the issue cab
be judged.
• Notice that saying something is a factual matter in
this sense is different from saying that it is a fact.
 Factual Matters
• For example, consider the issue of whether leukemia in
humans is caused by a virus or not. (It is not known as of yet
whether leukemia is caused by virus or not).
• But even though we do not know that it is a fact that a virus
causes leukemia,
• it is a factual matter because there are accepted methods and
criteria by means of which the question can be answered,
namely, the methods of laboratory science. Another example;
whether Museven won the last elections in Uganda or not.
1.2.2. Matters of Pure Opinion

• An Opinion
• a view or judgement formed about something, not
necessarily based on fact or knowledge. But more on
beliefs and personal convictions
• Suppose Rose thinks dogs make better pets than cats
and Asha thinks cats are better. After some discussion,
it might be either Rose or Asha could convince the
other to change his mind, but it is at least likely that
both will stick with their original opinions.
 Matters of Pure Opinions

• There is no set of facts or no generally accepted method or

standard we might employ that would enable us to decide
the issue definitively one way or the other. For this reason
we think of issues like this as matters of pure opinion.
• One can be either wrong or correct when disagreeing on a
matter of fact, i.e., two conflicting opinions about a matter
of fact cannot be both correct. (This would go against the
logical law of non-contradiction)
• But we allow two people to hold conflicting opinions about
matters of pure opinion.
 Matters of Pure Opinion
• Other examples of matters of pure opinion: Somebody may make this
claim ,” God exists” and the other contends, “God does not exist.”
• Or “policies of liberalism are essential for development.”
• Or “Tanzania is a nice country to live in.”
• “Christianity is the only true religion” or
• “Islam is the only true religion.”
• All the above are simply opinions one may chose to side on or oppose
its simply a matter of persona beliefs of the subject (subjective) and not
on the P.O.V. of the Object in question (Objective)
1.2.3 Objective and subjective
claims
• Connected to the two concepts above are subjective
and objective claims
• Objective Claims a.k.a Factual Claims
• claims about factual matters are also known as
objective claims; These more often but not exclusively
arise from factual issues
• Objective claims are statements that are true or false
regardless of our personal preferences, tastes, biases
and so on.
 Objective and subjective claims
• Subjective Claims a.k.a. non-factual claims
• claims about matters of pure opinion are known as
subjective claims
• Subjective claims are expression of those personal
preferences, tastes, biases and so on, although they may
appear at first to be about something else.
• For example, if I say that Mirinda tastes better than Fanta, I
am saying in other words that I like the taste of Mirinda
better than I like the taste of Fanta. So, If Jane says Mirinda
tastes better than Fanta and Asha says Fanta tastes better
than Mirinda, they can both be correct because each is really
expressing his own tastes.
 Objective and subjective claims
• The Assumption
• Many people assume that a claim is subjective –a matter of
pure opinion simply because it is controversial. This is a bad
mistake.
• For instance; Whether the death penalty lowers crime rates,
• whether human beings evolved from more primitive primates,
• whether the world has an end or not- these are all
controversial issues, but all of them are factual matters.
• i.e., we can imagine procedures by which they can be
tested to determine whether they are true.
 Objective and subjective claims
• There are legitimate disputes about the objective and
subjective nature of some claims.
• Many place claims about moral issues in this category.
• “Stealing is wrong” is said by to be an objective claim, a
statement of fact, others take it to be a subjective claim, an
expression of pure opinion.
• Also, There are some sophisticated arguments about how
such claims should be classified.
• The same is true for claims like “ God exists.” Some say
this is a straight forward objective claim; others say it isn’t
at all
 Objective and subjective claims

• However one sorts or analyses these kinds of claims, they do

have one thing in common: whether or not we can finally
determine the truth about them, it still remains true that
some opinions are better reasoned (or have more value)- and
indeed, more intelligent- than others.
 Objective and subjective claims

• The Legitimate Disputes in categorizing objectivity and

Subjectivity;
• Problems occur when we fail to understand the differences
between matters of fact and matters of pure opinion, and
between objective and subjective claims with which we state
them.
• We can waste time by trying to convince someone to change
his or her mind on a matter of pure opinion, since in the long
run there is no way to finally settle the matter.
 Objective and subjective
claims
• On the other hand, we make a serious mistake if
we treat a matter of fact as if it were one of pure
opinion.
• Calling it pure opinion can be an excuse for
failing to pursue the issue;
• it can be a way of avoiding a difficult problem or
abandoning it before we’ve tried our best to
settle it one way or another.
 Objective and subjective claims
• There is another mistake that is so common that it deserves
special consideration. You can easily spot the mistake because
it almost always takes the same form, even the same words:
“Everyone is entitled to his or her own opinion.”
• Now, it is true that in some sense, everyone is entitled to his or
her own opinion on anything. The reason for this is that, in
anything except a completely authoritarian dictatorship, people
are not forced to hold a given set of opinions.
• However; and this is the mistake – the fact that we do not
force people to have this or that opinion on a subject does
not mean that one opinion may not be much more intelligent,
much more practical, much more humane than some other
opinion.
 Objective and subjective claims
• Indeed some opinions are so bad, so stupid, or so dangerous
that it may be hazardous or even immoral to hold them.
• Opinions such as “some races are superior than others”,
• or “human slavery is a justifiable form of labour” or
• “any one has the right to terminate his/her own life”.
• Although it is vital to argue against such defective opinions,
the real danger of the “entitlement error” is that it keeps
people from talking and reasoning with one another.
 Objective and subjective
claims
• We shouldn’t confuse the equal value of people
with the equal value of people’s opinions.
Remember just because Human Rights Charter
gives equal worth to people, it does not give
equal worth to people’s opinions.
1.3 Thinking about our own thinking
• Everybody thinks. It is natural to humans to think. But
human thinking left to itself often gravitate towards
prejudice, overgeneralization, common fallacies, self
deception, rigidity and narrowness.
• Therefore human thinking needs to be disciplined, human
minds needs to be trained so as to avoid the above thinking
problems.
• The critical thinking tradition seeks ways of understanding
the mind and then training the intellect so that such “errors”,
“blunders” and “distortions” of thought are minimized.
• It assumes that the capacity of humans for good reasoning can
be nurtured and developed by an educational process aimed
directly at that end.
 Thinking about our own thinking
• Thinking plays a very powerful role in our lives. You are in
many ways what you think. Whatever you are doing, whatever
you feel, and whatever you want –all are determined by the
quality of your thinking.
• Thinking influences our feelings and finally our feelings will
influence the way we behave and act. One has to be aware or
conscious of his/her own thinking.
• However for most people, most of their thinking is
subconscious, that is most people are not aware of their
thinking.
• And when you are not aware of your thinking you have no
chance of correcting it.
• When thinking is subconscious you are in no position to see
any problems in it. And, if you don’t see any problems in it
you won’t be motivated to change it.
 Thinking about our own
thinking
• Eventually most people are victims of their own
thinking. Most people are their own worst enemy.
• Their thinking is a continual source of problems,
preventing them from recognizing opportunities,
keeping them from exerting energy where it will do
the most good, poisoning relationships, and leading
them down blind alleys.
 Thinking about our own thinking
• That is why critical thinking is essentially defined as the
art of taking charge of your own mind. And if we can take
charge of our own minds, we can take charge of our lives;
we can improve them, bringing them under our self
command and direction.
• This involves becoming interested on how our minds work,
how we can monitor, fine tune and modify their operations
for the better. It involves getting into the habit of reflectively
examining our impulse and accustomed ways of thinking and
acting in every dimension of our lives.
 Thinking about our own thinking
• Real Life Examples Applications of Introspection;
• All that we do, we do on the basis of some motivation or
reasons. But we rarely examine our motivations to see if
they make sense. We rarely scrutinize our reasons
critically to see if they are rationally justified. Consider the
following real life examples:
 Thinking about our own thinking
• 1. As consumers we sometimes buy things impulsively and
uncritically, without stopping to determine whether we
really need what we are inclined to buy or whether we can
afford it or whether it is good for our health or whether the
price is competitive.
• 2. As parents we often respond to our children impulsively
and uncritically, without stopping to determine whether our
actions are consistent with how we want to act as parents or
whether we are contributing to their self-esteem or whether
we are discouraging them from thinking or from taking
responsibility for their own behavior
 Thinking about our own thinking

• 3. As citizens too, we often vote impulsively and uncritically,

without taking the time to familiarize ourselves with the
relevant issues and positions, without thinking about the long
run implication of what is being proposed, without paying
attention to how politicians manipulate us by flattery or vague
and empty promises.
• 4. As friends, too often we become the victims of our own
infantile needs, “getting involved” with people who bring out
the worst in us or who stimulate us to act in ways that we have
been trying to change.
• 5. As husbands or wives too, often we think only of our own
desires and points of view, uncritically ignoring the needs and
perspectives of our mates, assuming that what we want and
what we think is clearly justified and true, and that when they
disagree with us they are being unreasonable and unfair.
 Thinking about our own thinking

• 6. As patients, too often we allow ourselves to become passive

and uncritical in our health care, not establishing good habits
of eating and exercise, not questioning what our doctor says,
not designing and following good plans for our own wellness.
• 7. As teachers, too often we allow ourselves to uncritically
teach as we have been taught, giving assignments that students
can mindlessly do, inadvertently discouraging their initiative
and independence, missing opportunities to cultivate their self-
discipline and thoughtfulness.
 Thinking about our own thinking
• An Unexamined Life
• It is quite possible and, unfortunately, quite “natural” to live
an unexamined life; to live in a more or less automated,
uncritical way. It is possible to live, in other words, without
really taking charge of the persons we are becoming; without
developing or acting upon the skills and insights we are
capable of.
• However, if we allow ourselves to become unreflective
persons – (or rather, to the extent that we do) – we are likely
to do injury to ourselves and to others, and to miss many
opportunities to make our own lives, and the lives of others,
fuller, happier, and more productive.
 Thinking about our own thinking

• The End Goal of Critical Thinking

• On this view, you can see critical thinking is an eminently
practical goal and value. It is focused on an ancient Greek
ideal of “living an examined life”… (remember Socrates..?).
It is based on the skills, the insights and the values essential
to that end.
• It is a way of going about living and learning that empowers
us as instructors and our students in quite practical ways.
When taken seriously it can transform every dimension of our
life.
 Thinking about our own thinking

• Critical thinking in relation to the Agents of Socialization

• When we try to think about our own thinking we have to take
stock of the things or factors that have had, and continue to have
influence on our thinking, or on our world view.
• Agents of Socialization include; The media, the schooling, the
family, our peers, religion, traditions and customs and many
others; all of these agents have had and continues to exert a
profound influence on our thinking and our lives in general.
• They have both negative and positive effects. After recognizing
the fact that all these agents are responsible for a person’s world
view, one has to take the trouble to challenge the contents of
these ‘socialization’ agents. To question all that has influenced
the way we view the world. To challenge the wrong notions in
the media, family, school, religion etc, etc.
 Thinking about our own thinking
• Among other things this course will help you to improve
the quality of your thinking by learning to questioning all
the unquestioned imaginative assumptions, and therefore
help you to achieve your goals and ambitions, make better
decisions, and understand where others are trying to
influence your thinking.
 Thinking about our own thinking
• It will help you to take charge of what you do in your
academic and private life, how you relate with others and
even what emotions you feel.
• Once you discover the power and the role of thinking in your
life you will become a better problem solver, you will be able
to use power more wisely, you will become less subject to
manipulation, you will live a fuller, more happy and secure
life.
 Thinking about our own thinking
• Other Benefits of Critical Thinking
• 1. In Academic Performance
• understand the arguments and beliefs of others
• Critically evaluating those arguments and beliefs
• Develop and defend one’s own well-supported arguments and beliefs
• 2. IN the Workplace
• Helps us to reflect and get a deeper understanding of our own and others’
decisions
• Encourage open-mindedness to change
• Aid us in being more analytical in solving problems
 Thinking about our own
• 3. IN Daily life thinking
• Helps us to avoid making foolish personal decisions.
• Promotes an informed and concerned citizenry capable of making good
decisions on important social, political and economic issues.
• Aids in the development of autonomous thinkers capable of examining
their assumptions, dogmas, and prejudices.
1.4. Thinking in the Contemporary Globalised World
• Reality in today’s world is so quickly changing that it is
difficult to master one thing before another comes into
existence. New global realities are rapidly penetrating the
deepest structures of our lives: economic, social, cultural,
political and environmental realities.
• And these new global realities have profound implications
for thinking and learning, business and politics, human rights
and human conflicts.
1.4. Thinking in the Contemporary Globalised World
• These realities are becoming increasingly complex, and
many represent significant dangers and threats.
Traditionally, our thinking has been designed for routine, for
habit, for automation, and fixed procedure (mazoea, kufanya
au kuamini jambo bila kujiuliza kwa nini).
• But the problems we now face and we will increasingly face
require a radically different form of thinking; thinking that is
more complex, more adaptable, and more sensitive to
divergent points of view. T
• he world in which we now live requires that we continually
re-learn, that we routinely rethink our decisions, and we
regularly re-evaluate the way we work and live. These
three Rs will increasingly determine the quality of our
work, the quality of our lives and more so our very survival.
 1.4. Thinking in the Contemporary
Globalised World
• The following are some examples of new global realities
that pose big challenges and threats to the world today;
• The revolution that is taking place in global
communications. This is a blessing in disguise. Imagine,
from fax machines to e-mail, from complex electronic
marketing systems to systems that track us and penetrate our
private lives. This means that we are not only providing
positive opportunities for people to be more efficient with
their time, but systems that render us vulnerable and wield
power over us.