INTRODUCTION TO

SOCIOLOGY
By Dr. Karatu Kiemo
Department of Sociology and Social Work
University of Nairobi
October 2023
DEFINITIONS
 Sociology is the science that studies human
society and social behavior.
 Sociologists are mainly interested in social

interactions i.e., how people relate to one

another and influence each other’s behavior
Basic Principles of Sociology
The basic principles of sociology are:
1. People behave differently in groups than they
do as individuals.
2. People obey rules that are socially constructed.

3. People socially construct the rules.

4. Some people have more say than others in

making the rules.
5. There are rewards for following the rules and
penalties for breaking the rules.
6. The rules of society can be studied scientifically.
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Sociological imagination – C.Wright Mills
 Sociology teaches us to look at social life in a
scientific systematic way
 Sociological perspective helps us to see that

we are social beings and that our behavior is

a result of social factors
 Sociology helps us to broaden our view of the

social world
 Sociology helps us to find an acceptable

balance between our personal desires and the

demand of our social environment
 Sociology helps us to view our own lives

within a larger social and historical context

Aims and Objectives of Sociology
 What are the responsibilities assigned to sociologists? What
do citizens expect of sociology? The fundamental task
assigned to the sociologist is to evaluate the conditions of
society, interpret these conditions, suggest potential
changes to improve society, and help implement and
evaluate these changes should citizens choose to do so.

 The basic tasks of the sociologist are to:

1. Monitor societal change/conditions through research.
2. Interpret social conditions from the sociological
perspective.
3. Provide suggestions for change.
4. Help implement change.
Forms of knowledge generation
 Belief – tradition, theology
 Abstraction – questioning and reasoning -

philosophy
 Science – empirical method – observation and

proving.

 Sociology as a normative discipline.

SOCIOLOGY AND THE SOCIAL
SCIENCES
 Other social sciences include:
 Anthropology- comparative study of various

aspects of past and present cultures

 Psychology-deals with the behavior and

thinking of organisms
 Economics-study of choices people make in

an effort to satisfy their wants and needs

 Political science-the examination of the

organization and operation of government

 History-study of past events
HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY
 Five factors leading to the emergence of sociology
1. Protestant reformation - enlightenment; modernism. C15th. Individual
salvation. Choice. Study. 1. Open space for indi. Inquiry. 2.
predestination. Conflict. John Calvin (swiss). Material possessions. Chosen
few. 144,000 pax. Hard work and thrift. Capitalists. Protestant ethic.

2. Political revolutions – 1789. monarchy. Liberty & freedom. Democracy.

Bastaille. Parliament. Policies. Saul. Appointed. Xgod. Locate human
experience in the hands of men, government. Conditions.

3. Industrial revolution agri- rural – indus-urban factory. 1700s. Engine.

Market. Melting pots cultures. Conditions- congestion, urban poverty,
unemployment and behaviours. Urbanism – exce individualsm anonymity
(anomie).
4. The growth of biological and physical sciences – organistic . cause-
effective . X – y.
5. Colonial expansion and international trade . Differences.
Founding Fathers and their key ideas
and contributions
 Auguste Comte (1798- 1857)– Saint–Simon; Positivism (natural
phenomena have natural causes), social phenomena – social
causes.

 Explain positivism - law of three stages (knowledge) theological

(fetishism, polytheism, monotheism), metaphysical (rights),
scientific/postivistic (practical).

 social statics and social dynamics, use of statistics in social

policy
 Socius (ally) logos

 Herbert Spencer (1820 -1903 – Evolutionary theory (social

Darwinism). Charles darwin – natural selection and the origin of
species.
 Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)– Subject
matter of sociology using a case study of
suicide; social facts; functional Integration as
the basis for mechanical and organic
solidarity.
 Karl Marx (1818 -1883– Conflict theory
(historical materialism and dialectical
materialism), alienation, exploitation, praxis
 Max Weber (1864 – 1920)– Social action;

verstehen as method of study

 Proletariat
 Bourgeoisie

Sociological Perspectives
Theory- This is the systematic explanation of
the relationships among phenomena
 Theoretical perspective-A general set of

assumptions about the nature of phenomena

 Functionalist perspective- Views society as a

set of interrelated parts that work together to

produce a stable social system
 Manifest function-This is the intended consequence
 Latent function- This is unintended consequence

 Dysfuction-this is the negative consequence an

element has for the stability of the social system eg

crime
 Conflict Perspective- Focuses on those forces in

society that promote competition and change

 Interactionist Perspective-Focuses on how individuals

interact with one another in the society

Symbol interaction- Interaction between people
that takes place through the use of symbol.
Symbol is anything that stands for something else
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
 This is the network of interrelated statuses
and roles that guides human interaction.
 Statuses- A status is a socially defined

position in a group or in a society

 Ascribed statuses-A status assigned

according to standards that are beyond a

persons control
 Achieved statuses-A status that is acquired

by an individual on the basis of some special

skill, knowledge or the ability.
 Masters Statuses- This is the status that plays
the greatest role in shaping a person’s life
and determining his/her social identity. It can
either be achieved or ascribed
ROLE
 Roles are the component of social structure
that brings these statuses to life
 Key terms:
 Reciprocal Roles-These are corresponding

roles that define the patterns of interaction

between related statuses
 Role Expectations –The socially determined

behaviors expected of a person performing a

role
 Role performance
 Role Conflict-This occurs when fulfilling the

role of one status makes it difficult to fulfill

the role expectations of another status;
 Role Strain- This occurs when a person has

difficulty meeting the role expectations of a

single status;
 Role ambiguity.
Social Institution
 This is a system of statuses, roles, values,
and norms that is organized to satisfy one or
more of the basic needs of the society –
notably provisions, social cohesion, social
control.
 Major institutions include;

◦ Family
◦ Economy
◦ Politics
◦ Education
◦ Religion
THE FAMILY
 Family systems: Nuclear, family of orientation,
family of procreation, extended family,
kinship.
 Marriage and kinship patterns: Marriage

partners, residential patterns, descent

patterns, authority patterns.
 Functions of the family: Regulation of sexual

activity, reproduction, socialization, economic

and emotion security, identity.
 Patterns of mate selection: homogamy,

heterogamy
RELIGION
 Functions of religion: Social cohesion, social
control, emotional support
 The nature of religion: rituals, belief

systems(animism, fetishism, shamanism,

totemism, theism, ethicalism)
 Organizational structures: ecclesia,

denomination, sect, cult.

GROUPS
 A group is a set of two or more people who
interact on the basis of shared expectations
and who possess some degree of common
identity.
 Groups differ in terms of :
 Length of time they remain together
 Organizational structures
 Size
 In terms of size a group can be
 Dyad- A group with two members
 Triad- A group with three members
TYPES OF GROUPS
 Primary group-A small group of people who
interact over a relatively long period of time
on a direct and personal basis.
 Secondary group- A group in which

interaction is impersonal and temporary in

nature
 Reference Group-Any group with whom

individuals identify and whose attitudes and

values the often adopt
 Ingroup- Any group that the person belongs
to and identifies with
 Outgroup- Any group that the person does

not belong to or identify with

 Aggregate -
 Category
Social Networks
 This is the web of relationships that is formed
by the sum total of a person’s interactions
with other people.
 It includes direct and indirect relationships
 Direct- Consists of people we interact with in

our primary and secondary group

relationships
 Indirect- Includes the people we know or who

know about us but with whom we have little

or no interaction.
 Group dynamics
 definition
 intra and intergroup dynamics
 group formation – forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning
 Group structure –roles, norms, values, status differentials.
 Prescriptive Norms: the socially appropriate way to respond in a social
situation, or what group members are supposed to do (e.g. saying thank
you after someone does a favour for you)
 Proscriptive Norms: actions that group members should not do; prohibitive
(e.g. not belching in public)
 Descriptive Norms: describe what people usually do (e.g. clapping after a
speech)
 Injunctive Norms: describe behaviours that people ought to do; more
evaluative in nature than a descriptive norm

 Group processes – identity, cohesiveness, black sheep effect, social

facilitation, self presentation.
TYPES OF SOCIETIES
 Hunting and gathering Societies
 Pastoral Societies
 Agricultural Societies
 Industrial Societies
 Post industrial Societies
 Contrasting Societies(mechanical and organic

solidarity)
 Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
TYPES OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
 Exchange- Exchange takes place whenever
individuals, groups, or societies interact in
am effort to receive a reward or a return for
their action
 Competition- It occurs when two or more

persons or groups oppose each other to

achieve a goal that only one can attain
 Conflict-This is a deliberate attempt to

control by force, oppose, harm, or resist the

will of another person or persons
 Cooperation- This occurs when two or more
persons or groups work together to achieve a
goal that will benefit many people
 Accommodation - It is a state of balance

between cooperation and conflict

SOCIAL CONTROL-
 Definition- The enforcing of norms through
either internalization or sanctions.
 Internalization- This is the process by which a
norm becomes a part of an individual’s
personality
 Sanctions: These are rewards or punishment
used to enforce conformity to norms
 Positive Sanctions: This is a sanction in form of a
reward.
 Negative Sanctions: This is a punishment or the
threat of punishment used to enforce conformity
 Formal Sanctions- This is a reward or
punishment that is given by some formal
organization like the government, police,
corporation or a school.
 Informal Sanction- This is a spontaneous

expression of approval or disapproval given

by an individual or a group.
THE SOCIAL SELF
Self- This is conscious awareness of
possessing a distinct identity that separates
us from other members of the society.
Socialization- It is the interactive process
through which individuals learn the basic
skills , values, beliefs, and behavior patterns
of the society.
 Key Concepts:
 The Tabula Rasa(John Locke)- State where

individuals are born as clean slate on which

can be written just about anything.
 The Looking- Glass Self( Charles Horton

Cooley)- This is the interactive process by

which we develop an image of ourselves
based on how we imagine we appear to
others.
 Role- Taking( George Herbert Mead)- This
concept forms the basis of the socialization
process by allowing us to anticipate what
others expect of us.
 Internalization occurs first with the significant

others( parents, brothers and sisters,

relatives and those who have a direct
influence) and
 Generalized other- internalized attitudes,

expectations, and viewpoints of society.

 Role taking involves a three-step process-
imitation, play and games.
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
 These are specific individuals, groups, and
institutions that provide the situations in
which socialization can occur.
 Primary agents of socialization include the

family, peer groups, the school and the mass

media.
 Family-It is the most important agent since

the family rests primarily in its role as the

principal socializer of young children.
 The peer group-This is a primary group
composed of individuals of roughly equal age
and social characteristics.
 To win acceptance in a peer group, people
tend to behave according to the standards of
the peers.
 The School- Since school occupies large
amounts of time, socialization is either
deliberate(planned activities) or
unintentional(eg teachers acting as role
models)
The Mass Media
 This includes newspapers, magazines, books,
television, radio, films and other forms of
communication that reach large audiences.
 Other Agents- Religion especially in values
transmission.,
 Total Institution-A setting in which people are
isolated from the rest of society for a set period
of time and are subject to the control of officials
of varied ranks. Socialization occurs through
resocialization (a break in the past experiences
and the learning of new values and norms).
PRESTIGE
 This is the respect, honor, recognition, or
courtesy an individual receives from other
members of society.
The Meaning of Culture
 According to sociologists culture consists of
all shared products of human groups. These
products include both physical
objects(material culture) and the
beliefs ,values, and behaviors(non material
culture) shared by a group.
 Components of Culture are:
 Symbols, language, values and

norms(folkways norms and mores)

Culture can be divided into;
 Cultural Traits: An individual tool, act, or
belief that is related to a particular situation.
It’s the smallest unit
 Cultural Complexes: A cluster of interrelated

traits
 Cultural Patterns: A combination of a number

of culture complexes
Other concepts of culture
 Ethnocentrism: This is the tendency to view
one’s own culture and group superior .
 Cultural Relativism: This is the belief that

cultures should be judged by their own

standard
SOCIAL CHANGE
 Factors that stimulate Change;
 Values and beliefs
 Technology
 Population
 Diffusion
 The physical environment
 Wars and Conquest
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
 Factors Contributing to Resistance
 Ethnocentrism- Tendency to view ones own

culture or group as superior

 Cultural Lag- A situation where some aspects

of the culture lag behind

 Vested Interest- Where people who are

satisfied with the way things are; resist any

effort to change